0  ELEMENTARY  B 

INDUSTRIAL 
ARTS 


w  m 


WINStrOW 


ELEMENTARY 
INDUSTRIAL  ARTS 


THE    MACMILLAN   COMPANY 

NEW  YORK    •    BOSTON   •    CHICAGO    •    DALLAS 
ATLANTA    •    SAN  FRANCISCO 

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THE  MACMILLAN  CO.  OP  CANADA.  LTD. 

TORONTO 


ELEMENTARY    ". 

INDUSTRIAL 
ARTS 


LEON 

Specialist  in  Drawing"  and 
Industrial  Training. 
The  Neyp^tork  State 

Department  of  Education 


ine  ^Nlacmillan  Company 
all  rigKts  reserved 


Printed  in  the  United  States  of  Ameri 


COPYRIGHT,  1922 
By  THE  MACMILLAN  COMPANY 


Set  up  and  electrotyped.   Published  March, 


THE  CONDE   NAST  PRESS 
GREENWICH,  CONN. 


Courtesy  of  the  National  City  Co. 


PREFACE 

In  spite  of  the  fact  that  industry  has  ever  been 
a  most  important  factor  in  our  national  life,  it  is 
only  within  the  past  few  years  that  instruction  in 
it  has  been  given  an  amount  of  emphasis  at  all 
commensurate  with  social  demands.  New  ideas 
regarding  the  aims  and  purposes  of  education  are 
to-day  bringing  about  long  needed  changes  in 
subject  matter  and  in  the  methods  of  its  presenta- 
tion, while  school  courses  are  being  reconstructed 
that  they  may  more  effectively  meet  the  demands 
being  made  upon  them  from  the  outside. 

A  vast  body  of  industrial  information  with 
which  all  men  and  women  of  true  culture  should 


vi        ELEMENTARY  INDUSTRIAL  ARTS 

be  familiar,  is  to-day  being  collected,  organized, 
evaluated,  and  crystallized  into  a  new  school 
study,  a  study  of  industry  from  the  social  as  well 
as  from  the  material  side,  a  cultural  study  with 
the  emphasis  upon  the  how  and  why  of  industrial 
operations  combined  with  a  real  appreciation  of 
industrial  life. 

The  industrial  arts  point  of  view  accepted,  we 
shall  see  that  for  the  purpose  of  organization  most 
of  the  drawing,  art,  and  construction  work  done 
in  schools  will  fall  to  the  new  subject  of  industrial 
arts  not  because  it  is  a  manual  subject  but  rather 
because  it  is  an  industrial  subject  and  because 
industry  deals  more  directly  with  drawing  and 
construction  than  do  history  or  geography.  As 
phases  of  school  life,  drawing  and  manual  training 
are  at  the  disposal  of  all  school  studies,  but  the 
time  has  gone  by  when  either  drawing  or  manual 
training  should  be  regarded  as  an  elementary 
school  subject. 

The  making  in  school  of  paper  boxes  or  of 
envelopes  may  be  regarded  as  a  good  exercise, 
but  the  amount  of  good  to  be  derived  from  such 
work  is  not  to  be  compared  with  that  gained 
through  the  making  of  these  and  other  articles 
in  connection  with  a  study  of  the  industries  which 
they  represent.  As  regards  elementary  education, 
we  may  truthfully  say  that  construction  should 
not  exist  for  mere  construction's  sake  any  more 
than  art  should  exist  for  art's  sake. 


PREFACE  vii 

Elementary  instruction  in  the  industries  will 
create  in  boys  and  girls  a  sufficient  interest  in 
and  knowledge  of  things  industrial  to  enlarge 
their  ability  to  appreciate  and  enjoy  the  works 
of  artist,  mechanic,  and  manufacturer.  Such  an 
ability  will  be  brought  about  (i)  by  investigating 
the  conditions  under  which  products  are  made;  (2) 
by  making  drawings  to  illustrate  forms,  facts, 
and  operations,  thus  clarifying  industrial  con- 
cepts; (3)  by  manipulating  the  materials  from 
which  articles  are  made,  thus  creating  a  new 
product;  (4)  by  making  decorative  designs  to 
enhance  the  beauty  of  objects. 

The  subject  matter  involved  in  work  of  this 
kind  is  perhaps  the  most  important  consideration. 
The  manual  work  must  be  made  valuable  by 
being  made  significant.  The  manipulation  of 
materials  whether  concerned  with  representation, 
with  design,  or  with  construction,  in  most  instances 
will  be  undertaken  for  the  purpose  of  clarifying 
ideas  regarding  subject  matter  directly  related  to 
the  industries. 

The  study  of  a  particular  industry  should  be 
approached  from  the  standpoint  of  general  edu- 
cation, the  activities  involved  being  adjusted 
to  the  ability  of  the  pupils.  An  industry  once 
chosen  for  study,  the  pupils  can  be  put  to  work 
investigating  it,  collecting  information  from  all 
sources  available.  Much  will  be  obtained  through 
actual  contact  with  those  engaged  in  the  industry 


viii        ELEMENTARY  INDUSTRIAL  ARTS 

or  who  handle  its  products.  Some  facts  will 
be  gleaned  from  reference  books.  The  topics 
to  be  considered  will  depend  upon  the  information 
available  and  the  ability  of  the  class.  The  follow- 
ing will  be  helpful  to  the  teacher  who  desires  to 
know  what  may  constitute  the  subject  matter: 
(i)  the  value  of  the  industry  to  man,  how  we  are 
affected  by  it;  (2)  the  evolution  of  the  industry, 
its  story,  its  heroes  of  invention  (history);  (3) 
characteristics  of  the  product,  what  constitutes 
excellence;  (4)  materials  employed,  where  they 
come  from  (geography);  (5)  processes  involved; 
(6)  tools  used;  (7)  the  training  of  the  workers; 

(8)  the  part  played  in  the  industry  by  arithmetic; 

(9)  the  part  played  by  drawing  and  design;    (10) 
references    to    the   industry    found    in    literature; 
(n)  the  industry  as  depicted  in  art. 

The  present  volume  aims  to  provide  instruction 
in  the  industries  appropriate  for  boys  and  girls 
in  the  upper  elementary  grades.  It  attempts 
to  combine  the  related  drawing  and  art  with 
construction  and  this  drawing  and  construction 
with  an  industrial  subject  matter,  something 
which  heretofore  has  not  been  attempted  in  a 
work  of  this  kind.  It  is  most  important  to-day 
that  pupils  in  the  schools  become  acquainted 
with  the  industries  by  which  man  lives.  This 
will  help  them  to  a  better  understanding  of  life 
outside  of  school  and  of  most  of  the  subjects 
considered  in  school. 


PREFACE  ix 

Industrial  intelligence  is  made  up  largely  of  a 
knowledge  of  processes  and  of  products.  This  is 
most  easily  attained  through  actually  experiencing 
the  difficulties  involved  in  the  handling  and  trans- 
forming of  materials.  It  is  therefore  desirable 
that  the  pupils  carry  out  the  activities  described 
or  suggested  in  each  of  the  chapters  that  follow. 
If  this  is  impossible  a  careful  study  of  the  processes 
described  and  illustrated  will  be  valuable. 

The  author  desires  to  acknowledge  indebtedness 
to  his  former  teachers,  Frederick  G.  Bonser  and 
Mrs.  Lois  Coffey  Mossman,  for  information  and 
inspiration  received  in  their  classes  in  industrial 
arts  education  at  Teachers  College,  Columbia  Uni- 
versity. The  text  attempts  to  carry  out  in  the 
schools  the  principles  underlying  the  teaching  of 
art  and  industry  presented  in  Dr.  Bonser's  Some 
Fundamental  Values  in  Industrial  Education.  It 
aims  especially  to  conform  to  his  definition  of  in- 
dustrial arts  as  "the  distilled  experience  of  man  in 
his  resolution  of  natural  materials  to  his  needs  for 
creature  comfort,  to  the  end  that  he  may  more 
richly  live  his  spiritual  life." 

For  helpful  suggestions  and  criticisms  rendered 
by  individuals,  publishers,  and  industrial  concerns 
the  author  wishes  to  express  gratitude  and  appre- 
ciation. Thanks  are  due  especially  to  his  wife, 
Lois  Crawford  Winslow,  for  general  assistance 
in  arranging  the  copy  and  for  compiling  the 
bibliographies  at  the  ends  of  the  chapters;  to 


x        ELEMENTARY  INDUSTRIAL  ARTS 

August  P.  Gompf  for  material  dealing  with  metals 
and  for  assistance  in  the  preparation  and  revision 
of  the  manuscript;  to  Leila  Mechlin,  Henry  T. 
Bailey,  Gerrit  A.  Beneker,  May  E.  Greenman,  and 
Mrs.  Stuart  T.  Todd  for  information  relating  to  art 
illustrations;  to  Edwin  B.  Richards,  Ernest  Hesser, 
and  Mary  B.  Hyde  for  information  relating  to  the 
source  of  poems;  to  William  Noyes  for  material 
dealing  with  lumbering  and  woodworking;  to 
Charles  F.  Binns  for  the  definitions  of  pottery 
products;  to  Herbert  Hutchinson  and  Harry 
Hostetler  for  information  dealing  with  wood- 
working and  soap  making;  to  the  Industrial  Arts 
Magazine,  the  School  Arts  Magazine,  and  the 
Manual  Training  Magazine  for  permission  to  use 
printed  matter  and  illustrations  prepared  by  the 
author  and  appearing  first  in  their  columns;  to 
The  Macmillan  Company  for  suggestions  and  for 
illustrations  used  in  other  of  their  publications 
on  art  and  industrial  subjects;  to  Louis  A.  Bacon 
for  illustrations  and  material  dealing  with  table 
construction;  to  Royal  B.  Farnum  for  illustrations 
and  material  dealing  with  bird  houses;  to  Augus- 
tus F.  Rose  for  illustrations  of  processes  in  copper 
working  contained  in  his  book  Copper  Work;  to 
George  J.  Cox  for  illustrations  dealing  with  pot- 
tery; to  James  Chittick  for  reading  the  chapter  on 
Textiles;  to  Lina  Eppendorff  for  illustrations  and 
material  dealing  with  beadwork,  contained  in  her 
Handwork  Construction;  to  the  American  Museum 


PREFACE  xi 

of  Natural  History  for  material  and  illustrations 
on  Indian  bead  work;  to  the  American  Type 
Founders  Company  for  reading  the  chapter  on 
Bookmaking;.  to  Charles  F.  Binns  and  the  Rook- 
wood  Pottery  for  reading  the  chapter  on  Pottery; 
to  the  Portland  Cement  Association  for  reading 
the  chapter  on  Cement  and  Concrete ;  to  the  Ana- 
conda Copper  Mining  Company  for  reading  the 
chapter  on  Copper;  to  the  Butler  Paper  Corpora- 
tions for  reading  the  chapter  on  Paper ;  and  to  the 
many  others  who  have  contributed  so  generously 
of  their  time  and  talent  to  the  success  of  this  book. 


LEON  L.  WINSLOW 


The  University  of  the 

State  of  New  York 

May,  1 92 1 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS 

CHAPTER  PAGE 

I.     BOOKMAKING I 

Evolution  of  the  book.  Invention  of  printing.  How 
books  are  made  to-day.  How  to  make  a  booklet,  a 
Japanese  book,  a  book  of  one  signature,  a  book  of 
several  signatures,  a  portfolio,  posters.  "The  Mo- 
nastic Scribe",  from  Friar  Jerome's  Beautiful  Book. 
Exercises.  Suggested  reading. 

II.   PAPERMAKING 50 

Early  ways  of  perpetuating  records.  The  inven- 
tion of  paper  by  the  Chinese.  Processes  involved 
in  papermaking.  How  to  make  paper.  Paper. 
Exercises.  Suggested  reading. 

III.  THE  MANUFACTURE  OF  BASKETS  AND  BOXES      69 

Need  for  baskets  and  boxes  in  the  commercial 
world.  Corrugated  containers.  Baskets  of  willow 
and  rattan.  How  to  make  a  woven  basket,  a 
woven  basket  over  a  form,  a  sewed  basket,  a 
padded  box  with  cover.  The  Basket  Weaver. 
Exercises.  Suggested  reading. 

IV.  BRICK  AND  TILE       .         .          .          .          .88 

The  brick  in  history.  Kinds  of  brick  and  tile  made 
to-day.  Processes  in  brickmaking.  How  to  make 
bricks  for  a  toy  house.  The  Builder.  Exercises. 
Suggested  reading. 

V.  THE  POTTERY  INDUSTRY  .         .         .104 

Use  of  clay  in  making  pottery.  Kinds  of  glazed 
pottery.  Old  and  new  methods  of  building  ware. 
How  pottery  is  made  in  the  factories.  Decorating 
of  pottery.  How  to  make  a  vase,  a  plaster  of 
Paris  form,  a  clay  bowl,  a  square  dish.  "The 
Potter's  Song",  from  Keramos.  Exercises.  Sug- 
gested reading. 


xiv  CONTENTS 

VI.  CEMENT  AND  CONCRETE    .         .         .         .    143' 

Concrete  as  a  building  material.  Manufacture  of 
portland  cement.  The  aggregate.  Water.  Placing 
concrete  in  the  forms.  How  to  make  a  concrete 
box,  a  cement  tile.  The  Song  of  the  Turbine  Wheel. 
Exercises.  Suggested  reading. 

VII.  THE  TEXTILE  INDUSTRIES          .         .         .182 

Carding.  Spinning.  Weaving.  Three  types  of 
weaves.  How  to  make  a  loom  frame,  a  harness 
frame,  a  shuttle,  a  rug.  The  Indian  Blanket. 
Exercises.  Suggested  reading. 

VIII.  COPPER 212 

The  beginnings  of  the  copper  industry.  Extracting 
metal  from  the  ore.  Forms  in  which  copper  is  put 
out  for  the  market.  Industrial  uses  of  copper. 
Alloys.  How  to  make  a  copper  tray.  The  Thinker. 
Exercises.  Suggested  reading. 

IX.   IRON  AND  STEEL       .         .         .         .         .    232 

Mining.  Reduction  of  the  ore.  Converting  iron 
into  steel.  Founding.  Converting  pig  iron  into 
wrought  iron.  Forging.  How  to  make  a  paper 
weight.  The  Forging  of  the  Anchor.  Exercises. 
Suggested  reading. 

X.  THE  SOAP  INDUSTRY          .         .         .         .253 

Historical  development  of  soapmaking.  Modern 
methods  in  the  manufacture  of  soap.  Classifica- 
tion of  products.  How  to  make  soap.  Soap  Song. 
Exercises.  Suggested  reading. 

XL  THE  GLASS  INDUSTRY        .         .         .         .265 

Early  uses  of  glass.  Making  of  glass  in  the  United 
States.  Processes  in  the  manufacture  of  glass. 
Varieties  of  products.  How  to  do  bead  work.  My 
Work.  Exercises.  Suggested  reading. 

XII.  WOOD  AND  WOODWORKING         .         .         .    296 

Importance  of  wood  and  its  products.  Lumbering. 
The  sawmill.  Drying.  How  to  make  a  table,  bird 
houses.  Stradivarius.  Exercises.  Suggested  read- 
ing. 


ELEMENTARY 
INDUSTRIAL.  ARTS 


'esper  L.  George 


Elementary  Industrial  Arts 


BOOKMAKING 

The  early  Babylonians  and  Assyrians  had  no 
books,  but  their  writings  were  preserved  in  the 
form  of  clay  bricks.  The  writing  was  inscribed 
upon  the  bricks  while  the  clay  was  still  soft. 
Later  the  bricks  were  baked  in  the  sun  or  some- 
times in  fire.  The  Romans  used  sheets  of  soft  metal 
and  wooden  slabs  coated  with  wax  as  writing  ma- 
terials. The  Chinese  employed  the  bark  of  the 
bamboo  for  the  purpose  until  about  600  A.D., 
when  they  succeeded  in  producing  a  material 
resembling  our  modern  rag  paper.  They  kept  this 
secret  to  themselves,  however,  until  the  eighth 


2          ELEMENTARY  INDUSTRIAL  ARTS 

century,  when  the  Arabs  learned  of  it  and  intro- 
duced paper  making  into  Europe. 

The  earliest  permanent  manuscript  writings 
were  inscribed  upon  scrolls  which  consisted  of 
long  strips  of  papyrus  or  parchment  rolled  upon 
sticks.  These  rolls  were  first  held  vertically 
for  reading,  but  later  they  were  read  horizontally, 
or  from  end  to  end.  Still  later,  shorter  lines  were 
used  in  the  inscriptions,  the  mass  of  written  char- 
acters being  broken  up  into  small  oblong  shapes 
which  somewhat  resembled  page  divisions.  This 
dividing  of  the  inscribed  material  into  sections 
must  have  suggested  the  idea  of  folding  the  scroll 
between  these  divisions.  At  any  rate  the  strip 
of  papyrus  or  parchment  was  later  folded  back- 
ward and  forward,  giving  it  somewhat  the  form 
of  an  unbound  book.  The  back  edges  later  came 
to  be  tied  together  and  in  this  way  reading  was 
made  much  easier  and  the  rolling  and  unrolling  of 
the  scroll  in  reading  were  avoided.  The  idea  was 
carried  still  farther  by  the  Japanese  who  laced 
together  the  back  edges  of  the  pages  of  their  books. 

The  art  of  bookbinding  is  much  older  than  the 
art  of  printing.  We  find  that  the  Babylonians 
provided  clay  cases  for  their  inscribed  clay  tablets; 
the  Romans  made  cases  for  their  early  manu- 
scripts. The  ivory  cases  of  the  double  folded  wax 
tablets  of  the  second  and  third  centuries  A.D. 
should  be  mentioned  in  this  connection  on  account 
of  their  beautiful  carved  decorations.  They  are 


© 

Scroll 
written, 
Across  its 

cUarneter 


croU.  ujcxitcn.  upon.  lorvgitud.t.naLtM 


@  ® ScrdLL  u^ciiten.  in.  pa^c  forrrv. 

•"--"- 


Evolution,  of  the  Book 


4          ELEMENTARY  INDUSTRIAL  ARTS 

among  our  most  cherished  examples  of  the  Chris- 
tian art  of  that  period. 

In  the  early  days  of  Greece  and  Rome,  manu- 
scripts in  scroll  form  were  copied  by  scholars 
known  as  scribes.  Books  were  later  made  and 
preserved  in  the  monasteries  by  the  monks  who 
were  our  first  real  bookmakers.  Some  monks  spent 
their  entire  lives  in  copying.  Their  monasteries 
were  to  be  found  all  the  way  from  Ireland  to  Jeru- 
salem. Thomas  Bailey  Aldrich  has  written  a  poem 
about  the  monastic  scribe,  Friar  Jerome's  Beautiful 
Book.  Reading  it  gives  one  a  feeling  of  intimate 
acquaintance  with  a  bookmaker  of  the  middle  ages. 

The  early  manuscript  books  of  the  middle  ages 
were  for  the  most  part  gospels  and  psalters,  gor- 
geously decorated  in  brilliant  colors.  St.  Boniface,  a 
monastic  scribe,  once  wrote  a  letter  to  a  friend  in 
which  he  expressed  the  wish  that  his  illuminated 
inscriptions  might  be  gay  and  bright,  "even  as  a 
glittering  lamp." 

Dageus,  an  Irish  monk,  skilled  in  bookbinding, 
illuminating,  and  the  working  of  metals,  made 
many  beautiful  designs  for  the  covers  and  clasps 
of  his  books.  Ethelsold,  another  monk,  made, 
from  metal,  book  covers  which  were  brilliantly 
gilded  and  jeweled.  Such  books  were  bound  in 
oak  boards  and  these  covered  with  leather  and 
metal.  They  were  often  provided  with  clasps, 
corners,  and  other  trimmings,  which  served  both 
a  useful  and  a  decorative  purpose. 


BOOKMAKING  5 

Bookbinders  became  more  and  more  extravagant 
in  their  materials.  In  1583,  Henry  III  of  France 
was  forced  to  decree  that  civilians  must  not  use 
more  than  four  diamonds  in  decorating  a  single 
volume.  The  nobility  were  prohibited  from  using 
more  than  five  for  this  purpose. 


Grosset  &•  Dunlap 

CUTTING  DEPARTMENT 

The  sheets  are  cut  by  machine  and  are  stacked  and  loaded  on  the 
truck  by  the  workers. 

The  early  printers  were  their  own  binders. 
Later  the  binding  of  books  was  handed  over  to 
stationers.  William  Caxton,  the  first  English 
printer,  bound  his  books  in  covers  of  tooled 
leather.  His  decorative  patterns  were  usually 
made  up  of  diagonal  lines,  the  diamond  shapes 
formed  by  the  lines  being  filled  by  a  dragon  form. 
In  the  sixteenth  century  bookbinders  began  to  use 


6          ELEMENTARY  INDUSTRIAL  ARTS 

damask,  satin,  and  velvet.  Bindings  of  to-day  are 
of  paper,  cloth,  and  leather.  The  cloth  binding  is  an 
English  invention  which  came  into  use  about  1832. 
There  are  two  stages  in  the  modern  process  of 
bookmaking.  The  first  includes  the  writing  of 


Grossel  6*  Dunlap 
The  flat  sheets  are  cut  and  folded  into  signatures  by  this  machine. 

the  manuscript  and  the  arrangements  between 
the  publisher  and  author;  the  second,  the  over- 
hauling of  the  manuscript  by  the  printer's  reader 
and  the  printing  of  the  corrected  manuscript. 

In   books  of  usual  size,   thirty-two   pages   are 
printed  at  one  time  on  a  single  sheet.    The  types 


BOOKMAKING  7 

are  so  arranged  on  the  press  that  when  the  sheet 
is  cut  and  folded  the  pages  follow  one  another  in 
numerical  order.  The  thirty-two-page  sheet  is 
cut  into  two  sections  called  signatures. 


Grosset  &•  Dunlap 

The  signature  gatherer  is  almost  human;  it  picks  up  the  signatures 
in  the  order  in  which  they  are  to  appear  in  the  book. 

A  signature  consists  of  sixteen  pages,  and  the 
ordinary  book  is  composed  of  from  twenty  to 
twenty-four  of  these.  A  marvelous  machine  with 
mechanical  hands  gathers  the  signatures  in  their 
correct  order. 

But  there  are  many  steps  before  the  book  is 


8          ELEMENTARY  INDUSTRIAL  ARTS 

ready  for  the  reader.  For  instance,  there  is  the 
matter  of  illustrations,  which  takes  us  back  to 
the  artist's  original  drawing,  done  in  colors  or  in 
black  and  white.  The  drawing  is  photographed 


Cresset  &  Dunlap 
The  gathered  signatures  are  sewn  together  on  this  machine. 

and  a  zinc  or  copper  plate  made  of  it.  If  the 
illustration  is  to  be  reproduced  in  colors,  a  plate 
must  be  made  for  each  color,  and  the  paper  run 
through  the  press  a  corresponding  number  of 
times.  A  zinc  etching,  or  reproduction  in  black 
and  white,  and  a  halftone,  or  reproduction  in 
various  values  of  gray,  go  through  the  press  only 


Crosset  &*  Dunlap 
The  stitched  book,  rounded  and  backed,  is  ready  to  receive  the  cover. 


IO 


ELEMENTARY  INDUSTRIAL  ARTS 


once.   A  zinc  etching  is  used  in  printing  a  line  cut 
illustration. 

Before  and  after  sewing,  in  order  to  make  the 
book  lie  flat,  it  is  smashed,  that  is,  compressed, 


Grosset  &•  Dunlap 
Completed  Books  Ready  for  Shipment  to  Schools  and  Book  Stores 

in  a  machine  exerting  several  tons  of  pressure, 
to  squeeze  out  all  the  air.  Sewing  machines 
stitch  the  signatures  into  the  composite  book. 
These  are  fed  to  the  machine,  sixteen  pages  at  a 
time,  by  an  operator  possessing  considerable 
skill.  Trimming  follows  smashing  and  sewing. 
Another  machine  rounds  and  backs  the  book; 


Grosset  &•  Dunlap 
This  machine  prints  or  embosses  the  cover. 


12        ELEMENTARY  INDUSTRIAL  ARTS 

that  is,  gives  it  the  usual  curved  back  and  edge. 
A  back  strip  is  then  glued  on  the  unbound  book,, 
which  is  now  ready  for  its  cover  or  case.  The  cover 
goes  through  several  processes.  First  two  boards, 
cut  the  required  size,  are  fed  with  the  cloth  into  a1 
machine  that  wraps  and  glues  the  cloth  to  them. 

The  covers  are  then  placed  about  the  pages 
and  glued  fast,  after  which  the  book  is  placed 
in  a  heavy  press  where  it  remains  for  at  least 
twelve  hours. 

A  folio  is  a  book  which  is  made  from  sheets 
which  have  been  folded  once,  each  sheet  forming 
two  leaves  or  four  pages.  A  quarto  is  a  book  made 
from  sheets  which  have  been  folded  twice,  each 
sheet  forming  four  leaves  or  eight  pages.  An 
octavo  is  a  book  made  from  sheets  which  have 
been  folded  three  times,  forming  eight  leaves,  or 
sixteen  pages.  In  making  up  or  assembling  a  book 
of  many  signatures,  each  sheet  in  consecutive 
order  is  taken  from  the  proper  pile,  folded,  and 
stitched.  Then  the  assembled  sheets  are  glued 
and  placed  in  the  case  along  with  the  other  signa- 
tures as  indicated  above. 

The  great  industry  of  bookmaking  can  only 
be  appreciated  by  making  a  careful  study  of 
the  slow  processes  of  ancient  times  and  of  the 
evolution  which  has  brought  about  our  modern 
methods  of  production. 

Just  how  printing  was  invented  is  a  fact  which 
has  not  yet- been  definitely  learned.  It  is  thought 


BOOKMAKING  13 

by  many  who  have  made  a  study  of  the  art  that 
the  stone  seals  used  by  ancient  peoples  may  have 
suggested  the  idea  of  printing.  They  were  often 
made  from  precious  gems  and  were  intaglio, 
engraved  or  cut  in,  an  intaglio  being  the  reverse 
of  a  cameo,  which  stands  out  in  relief.  It  was 
but  a  step  from  printing  upon  wax  with  a  seal 
to  printing  upon  a  harder  material  with  an  en- 
graved block.  Visiting  cards  are  to-day  printed 
by  means  of  intaglio  plates  by  the  process  com- 
monly known  as  engraving. 

The  Chinese  were  probably  the  first  people  to 
print.  Engraved  wooden  blocks  were  used  in 
China  for  the  printing  of  books  as  early  as  the 
sixth  century  A.D.  Printing  was  unknown  in 
Europe  at  that  time,  however.  A  new  application 
was  to  be  made  of  it  in  western  Europe  by  John 
Gutenberg,  a  German,  about  the  year  1440. 

Gutenberg's  printing  shop  was  quite  different 
from  our  modern  printing  establishments.  The 
first  printing  which  he  did  was  by  means  of  blocks 
of  wood  on  which  he  had  carved  illustrations 
and  letters  in  relief  (cameo).  One  of  the  illus- 
trations engraved  by  an  earlier  printer  was  a 
picture  of  St.  Christopher  bearing  the  Christ  child 
across  a  stream. 

Gutenberg's  discovery  consisted  in  making  type 
from  antimony  and  lead.  He  succeeded  in  casting 
each  metal  letter  by  itself,  making  it  possible  to 
arrange  the  letters  as  he  saw  fit.  In  this  way  the 


I4        ELEMENTARY  INDUSTRIAL  ARTS 

same  types  could  be  used  over  and  over  in  limitless 
combinations  as  they  are  used  in  printing  to-day. 

It  is  interesting  at  this  point  to  recall  that  the 
Chinese  had  long  before  invented  the  process 
of  printing.  The  method  of  printing  with  movable 
types  has  never  been  popular  in  China,  however, 
owing  to  the  almost  limitless  number  of  the  char- 
acters which  are  .employed  in  the  written  language 
of  the  Chinese.  These  signify  words  or  ideas, 
not  letters  as  in  our  language.  China  has  excelled 
in  her  wonderful  wood  block  prints,  many  of 
which  are  still  regarded  as  masterpieces  of  in- 
dustrial art. 

John  Gutenberg's  discovery  soon  bore  fruit 
in  England,  where,  in  1476,  William  Caxton  set 
up  a  printing  press  at  the  sign  of  the  Red  Pale  at 
Westminster.  To  Caxton  belongs  the  credit  of 
publishing  the  first  book  printed  in  the  English 
language,  a  translation  of  The  Recuyell  of  the 
His  tor  yes  of  Troye. 

Both  Gutenberg  and  Caxton  employed  a  screw 
hand  press  equipped  with  a  flat  bed  upon  which 
the  metal  type  was  placed.  Pressure  was  applied 
by  means  of  a  vertical  screw  turned  by  a  bar. 
Such  presses  were  at  first  made  entirely  of  wood. 

About  1800  a  press  was  introduced  in  England 
in  which  a  cylinder  was  substituted  for  the  platen, 
or  flat  bed.  This  cylinder  carried  the  paper  over 
the  type,  pressing  it  down  to  receive  the  inked 
impression. 


16        ELEMENTARY  INDUSTRIAL  ARTS 

The  flat  bed  press  was  the  only  one  used  to 
any  great  extent  in  the  United  States  until  about 
1865;.  when  William  Bullock,  of  New  York, 


American  Type  Founders  Go. 


Hand  Composition 


constructed  a  rotary  press  which  printed  from  an 
"endless"  roll  of  paper.  In  1847,  R.  Hoe  &  Co., 
of  New  York,  produced  a  press  in  which  the 
type  was  on  the  surface  of  a  revolving  cylinder. 
In  1871,  the  same  concern  placed  upon  the  market  a 


BOOKMAKING  17 

rotary  press  which  printed  on  both  sides  of  the 
paper  from  curved  stereotype  plates.  Our  modern 
city  newspaper  presses  are  similar  to  the  original 
rotary  machine  of  R.  Hoe  &  Co.,  although  the 
mechanism  has  been  constantly  improved. 

The  setting  of  type  in  regular  order  for  printing 
is   called   typesetting   or   composing.      Typesetting 


Katherine  M.  Stillwell  Rand  McNally  &•  Co 

The  composing  stick  is  held  in  the  left  hand. 

is  to-day  performed  by  hand  and  by  machine. 
In  the  hand  method  the  type  is  placed  in  a  shallow 
drawer  which  is  divided  into  small  compartments 
in  which  all  letters  or  figures  just  alike  are  kept, 
the  letters  being  so  arranged  that  the  type  is 
most  convenient  for  the  compositor,  who  stands 
in  front  of  the  type  case  with  the  copy  before 
him.  He  holds  in  one  hand  a  little  iron  tray 


i8        ELEMENTARY  INDUSTRIAL  ARTS 


called  a  composing  stick  and  with  the  other  he 
picks  out  the  type  and  places  it  in  the  composing 
stick.  As  fast  as  the  composing  stick  is  filled 
he  places  the  type  which  he  has  thus  arranged 
in  a  galley,  which  is  a  long  iron  slip  or  tray.  In 
book  printing  the  proof  is  taken  direct  from  these 
galleys.  The  impression  taken  from  the  type 

thus  set  is  called 
the  galley  proof. 
As  soon  as  the 
proof  has  passed 
the  inspection  of 
the  author,  it 
is  returned  to 
the  printer,  who 
breaks  his  gal- 
leys up  into  page 
divisions  and 
locks  them  se- 
curely in  the 
forms.  The  sec- 
ond proof  taken  is  usually  the  page  proof.  The  proofs 
are  corrected  again  and  again  and  new  proofs  made 
until  a  final  one  is  taken  which  is  at  last  returned  to 
the  author  for  his  final  correction  and  approval. 
When  this  has  been  done  the  forms  for  printing  one 
side  of  a  sheet  used  to  form  one  signature  are  locked 
securely  in  place  in  a  strong  iron  frame  called  achase. 
In  modern  printing  offices,  type  is  for  the  most 
part  made  by  means  of  the  linotype  machine,  which 


American  Type  Founders  Co. 
Proof  Reading 


American  Type  Founders  Co. 

Arranging  and  locking  types  in  the  chase  for  printing  is  called  imposing. 


20        ELEMENTARY  INDUSTRIAL  ARTS 


at  one  time  casts  the  letters  and  spaces  for  a  line. 

In  this  machine  the  type  is  automatically  cast 

in  type  metal  (anti- 
mony and  lead)  by 
means  of  matrices,  or 
patterns,  which  form 
a  part  of  its  mech- 
anism. In  establish- 
ments where  quality 
of  work  is  the  chief 
consideration  the 
type  is  usually  still 
set  by  hand.  Hand 
composition  makes 
possible  a  more  ar- 
tistic spacing  of 

The  Linotype  Machine  words 

The  composing  machine 
known  as  the  linotype  was 
invented  in  1886  by  Ottmar 
Mergenthaler,  and  the  first 
one  to  be  used  commercially 
was  installed  in  the  com- 
posing-room of  the  New  York 
Tribune  in  July  of  that  year. 

The     linotype,     which     is 
operated     by    one    or    more 
Linotype  Matrix         keyboards  similar  to  the  key- 
board of  a  typewriter,  is  based 
on   the   idea   of   forming   the 


BOOKMAKING 


21 


entire  line  as  a  unit  in  place  of  the  single  type 
unit  established  by  Gutenberg.     This  entire  line, 


Linotype  Slugs 


or  linotype   slug,   is   made   by   bringing   together 

such  matrices  (intaglio  types)  and  spacebands,  or 

spacers,  as  are  required 

for    a    line,    and    then 

holding  the  assembled 

molds   in   position   for 

casting    while    molten 

metal   is  pumped  into 

the  mold  and   against 

the  face  of  the  line  of 

matrices  and    spacers.     When    the    machine    has 

completed  a  revolution  the  linotype  slug  is  pushed 

out. 

The  matrices  and  spacebands  in  use  on  a  lino- 
type machine  can  be  used  over  and  over  again 


Handling  Slugs 


22        ELEMENTARY  INDUSTRIAL  ARTS 

continuously.  As  many  as  three  lines  of  matrices 
and  spacebands  can  be  in  movement  on  the  ma- 
chine at  one  time;  that  is,  one  line  can  be  assembled 


icon  Type  Founders  Co. 


Press  Operating 


or  put  together  while  another  is  in  casting  position, 
and  still  another  is  being  distributed.  After  the 
slugs  have  been  used  once,  they  can  be  returned 


BOOKMAKING  23 

to  the  melting  pot  and  the  metal  used  for  the 
making  of  other  slugs.  It  is  of  interest  to  know 
that  linotype  matrices  now  may  be  had  for  forty 
different  languages,  while  American-built  lino- 
type machines  are  now  in  operation  in  sixty-three 
different  countries. 

When  only  one  edition  is  wanted,  as  in  the  case 
of  small  job  work,  the  printing  of  a  book  is  gener- 
ally done  directly  from  the  type;  and  after  print- 


R.  Hoe  6-  Co. 

A  Stereotype  Plate  Curved  to  Fit  the  Press  Cylinder 

ing,  the  forms  are  torn  down  and  the  type  dis- 
tributed in  the  trays  for  future  use.  When  later 
editions  are  likely  to  be  called  for,  stereotype  plates 
are  sometimes  made.  In  this  way  the  original 
type  arrangement  can  be  preserved.  Stereotype 
plates  are  cast  in  cylindric  form  for  use  on  the 
rotary  presses  employed  in  newspaper  work. 
Electrotype  plates  are  generally  used  in  book 
printing  which  is  done  on  a  flat  bed. 

Stereotype  plates  are  made  of  type  metal  which 
is   composed   of   tin,    lead,    and   antimony.     The 


24        ELEMENTARY  INDUSTRIAL  ARTS 

plates  are  made  by  pressing  a  prepared  pulp  of 
wet  papier-mache  upon  the  face  of  the  original 
type.  When  this  pulp  has  taken  the  positive 
impression  from  the  type  and  has  become  dry, 
molten  type  metal  is  poured  over  it  to  the  required 
thickness.  The  plate  thus  formed  is  fixed  upon 
a  wooden  block  making  it  of  the  same  thickness 
as  the  type  stems,  in  order  that  it  may  be  placed 
in  the  forms  and  the  chase  along  with  the  type. 

In  the  process  of  electrotyping  the  impression 
is  taken  by  placing  over  the  face  of  the  original 
type  a  sheet  of  wax  which  has  been  heated  to  the 
proper  degree  of  softness.  When  this  wax  positive 
impression  has  been  taken,  the  sheet  of  wax  is 
placed  in  a  liquid  through  which  passes  an  electric 
current,  which  deposits  a  thin  coat  of  copper 
over  the  wax.  This  thin  copper  sheet  conforms  to 
the  letter  shapes.  It  is  now  taken  from  the  wax 
and  is  backed  up  and  made  strong  with  type 
metal.  The  electrotype  plate  at  this  stage  resembles 
the  stereotype  plate  used  in  newspaper  printing 
except  that  it  has  the  outward  appearance  of 
being  made  of  copper.  Stereotyping  is  quicker 
and  cheaper  then  electrotyping.  Electrotyping 
is  more  durable,  however,  and  is  better  suited  to 
high-class  printing  on  the  finer  grades  of  paper. 

Printing  is  commonly  accomplished  by  steam 
and  electric  power,  the  paper  being  fed  in  at  one 
end  of  a  machine  and  turned  out  a  finished  printed 
product  at  the  other,  in  the  case  of  magazines  and 


BOOKMAKING  25 

newspapers  often  at  the  rate  of  one  hundred 
thousand  copies  an  hour.  When  we  stop  to  com- 
pare the  early  methods  of  printing  with  the 
methods  employed  to-day,  we  marvel  at  the 
wonderful  advance  in  this  industry,  which  has 
made  knowledge  easily  accessible  to  us  all. 

Teacher's  Note:  If  possible,  a  visit  to  an  up-to-date  newspaper  or 
publishing  house  should  be  arranged.  The  instructor  may  illustrate 
the  process  of  stereotyping  in  the  following  manner:  (i)  Obtain  a 
linoleum  print  block  which  has  been  made  by  a  pupil,  or  make  such  a 
block  by  cutting  a  letter  in  relief.  (2)  This  block  will  be  the  pattern 
from  which  it  is  desired  to  make  a  matrix,  or  form  for  casting  type. 
Pack  pulp  (made  by  soaking  paper  in  water)  around  the  block  in  order 
to  get  an  accurate  impression  of  all,  including  the  letter  and  entire 
block.  (3)  Remove  the  print  block  from  the  pulp  which  has  now 
been  made  to  conform  to  its  shape.  (4)  Allow  this  pulp  box  or  matrix 
to  dry.  (5)  Pour  molten  lead  into  the  matrix.  If  poured  very  slowly 
the  metal  will  run  down  into  all  the  edges  of  the  inside  of  the  form. 

(6)  After  the  lead  has  hardened  and  cooled  the  pulp  may  be  scraped  off. 

(7)  The  face  of  the  piece  of  type  thus  cast   should   now    be   finished 
with  a  file. 


THE  MAKING  OF  A  SIMPLE  BOOKLET 

A  simple  booklet  may  be  made  in  which  to  pre- 
serve our  essays,  drawings,  and  collections.  The 
construction  of  the  booklet  need  not  be  elaborate. 
The  pages,  perhaps  7  inches  by  9  inches  in  size, 
are  fastened  together  by  punching  and  lacing. 
A  piece  of  flexible  paper  will  serve  as  a  cover. 
A  simple  cover  design  appropriate  to  the  subject 
of  printing  is  made.  This  design  will  include 

(i)    A  marginal  line. 


26        ELEMENTARY  INDUSTRIAL  ARTS 

(2)  The  title  and  the  name  of  the  author  in 
free  hand  lettering. 

(3)  An    appropriate   spot   or   unit   which    may 
symbolize  a  printing  press,  a  printer  at  work,  or 
a  shelf  of  books. 

The  design  for  the  unit  will  be  transferred  to  a 


Cutting  blocks  for  printinq — • 


linoleum  block  (a  block  of  soft  wood  about  an 
inch  in  thickness  to  which  a  piece  of  linoleum, 
perhaps  three  sixteenths  of  an  inch  in  thickness 
has  been  glued).  Before  transferring  the  design 
it  may  be  necessary  to  reverse  it  by  tracing  the 
lines  on  the  back  of  the  sheet.  This  may  be  done 
by  holding  the  paper  against  a  window  pane. 
The  linoleum  is  cut  away  from  those  parts  of  the 
design  which  are  not  to  print.  A  pad  is  made  by 


BOOKMAKING  27 

rolling  up  a  strip  of  cheese  cloth  so  that  at  least 
four  thicknesses  are  piled  one  upon  another.  Over 
this  pad  is  poured  the  ink,  a  mixture  of  liquid 
glue  in  which  water  color  paints  (tempera  colors 
preferred)  have  been  mixed.  If  the  mixture  is  too 
stiff,  add  a  few  drops  of  water.  There  should  be 
no  superfluous  ink  piled  up  on  the  pad.  If  the 
ink  does  pile  up  on  the  block,  it  can  be  removed 
with  a  dry  cloth.  The  block  is  applied  to  the  pad 
several  times  before  a  print  is  made.  It  should 
be  revolved  slightly  in  the  hand  after  each  ap- 
plication to  the  pad  in  order  to  provide  for  an 
equal  distribution  of  ink  over  the  surface  of  the 
print  block.  By  the  use  of  the  ink  pad  and  lino- 
leum block  the  design  unit  is  printed  upon  the 
cover  in  just  the  place  where  it  will  appear  to  the 
best  advantage.  A  complementary  color  scheme 
should  be  used,  the  color  employed  in  the  printed 
unit  being  the  complement  of  that  used  in  the 
marginal  line  and  lettering,  as,  for  example,  yel- 
low and  purple-blue,  red  and  blue-green,  yellow- 
red  (orange)  and  blue,  etc. 

II 
THE  MAKING  OF  A  JAPANESE  BOOK 

Materials:  two  cover  boards  of  strawboard,  3^ 
inches  by  6^  inches;  two  pieces  of  strawboard 
for  laced  back,  I  inch  by  6^  inches;  two  pieces 
of  cloth  for  cover  hinges,  4  inches  by  14  inches 


2o  pieces  of  papx?r,6j"xH" 


first  fold 


Second  fold 


folded  skeets,  witk  straw- 
board  in.  position 


The  Maktnq  of  a  Japanese  Book 


BOOKMAKING  29 

(this  will  make  two  hinges  4  inches  by  7  inches); 
two  pieces  of  colored  paper  to  cover  strawboard 
covers,  6  inches  by  7^  inches;  four  pieces  of  paper 
for  cover  lining,  two  pieces  3^  inches  by  6% 
inches,  and  two  pieces  y±  inch  by  6^  inches;  twenty 
pieces  of  paper  for  leaves,  6^  inches  by  1 1  inches. 

(1)  The  twenty  leaves  are  folded  first.    Place 
them  in  a  pile  on  the  table  at  one  side,  a  short 
edge  parallel  with  the  front  edge  of  the  desk. 

(2)  Each  of  the  sheets  is  now  folded  as  follows: 
One  of  the  short  edges  is  folded  over  I  inch  and 
the  paper  creased.    (This  creasing  is  best  accom- 
plished by  applying  pressure  first  in  the  center  of 
the  fold  and  then  carrying  the  pressure  in  both 
directions  simultaneously  with   the  index  fingers 
of  both  hands.    A  pencil  line  is  drawn  2  inches 
from  the  short  edge  of  each  sheet  before  creasing. 
By  placing  the  edge  even  with  this  line,  I  inch  of 
paper  will  be  folded  over.) 

(3)  Fold  the  opposite  short  edge  over  to  the 
crease  just  made  and  place  under  the  flap. 

(4)  Fold  each  of  the  nineteen  pages  remaining 
in  like  manner. 

(5)  Arrange  the  folded  pages  in  a  pile,  each  with 
the  three  thicknesses  of  paper  on  the  same  side. 
The  covers  are  now  assembled  as  follows: 

(6)  Place  one  of  the  small  pieces  of  strawboard 
on  the  topmost  folded  sheet  of  paper.    The  folded 
sheet  is  6^  inches  by  5  inches;  the  piece  of  straw- 
board,  i  inch  by  6^  inches.    It  is  placed  directly 


30        ELEMENTARY  INDUSTRIAL  ARTS 

over  the  flap.   Make  three  edges  of  the  strawboard 
lie  along  three  edges  of  the  folded  sheet. 

(7)  Now  place  one  of  the  large  pieces  of  straw- 
board  on  the  folded  sheet  beside  the  smaller  piece. 
This  strawboard  is  the  piece  3^  inches  by  6^ 
inches.    Make  three  of  its  edges  lie  along  the  three 
remaining  uncovered  edges  of  the  folded  sheet. 
The  two  pieces  of  strawboard  are  now  ^  inch  apart, 
since  5  inches  (the  width  of  the  folded  sheet)  minus 
3^4  inches  (the  width  of  the  larger  piece  of  straw- 
board)   minus   I    inch   (the  width  of  the  smaller 
piece  of  strawboard)  equals  ^  inch. 

(8)  Glue  or  paste  is  applied  to  the  two  pieces 
of  strawboard  which  are  now  placed  with  their 
long  edges  ^  inch  apart. 

(9)  The  piece  of  cloth  which  is  used  as  a  hinge  is 
now  wrapped   around   the   two   pieces   of  straw- 
board.     It  is  wrapped  lengthwise  and,   being   14 
inches  long,  it  goes  entirely  around  the  cover  which 
is  but  6^4    inches  long.     It  will   overlap  almost 
half  an  inch.    (This  is  determined  by  the  thickness 
of  the  strawboard.) 

( I  o)    The  other  cover  is  assembled  in  the  same  way . 

(n)  The  boards  are  now  covered  with  the  col- 
ored paper  which  is  allowed  to  project  }4.  inch 
on  all  four  sides.  The  cover  paper  is  pasted  to  the 
cover  board,  paste  being  applied  to  the  entire 
surface  of  the  strawboard.  A  piece  of  newspaper 
is  used  to  protect  the  worker's  table,  and  a  clean 
piece  is  placed  over  the  work  for  pressing. 


BOOKMAKING  31 

(12)  After   the  surface   has   been   covered   the 
cover  paper  is  cut  at  a  miter,  as  shown  in  the  il- 
lustration, at  each  of  the  four  corners. 

(13)  Paste  is  now  applied  to  each  lap  and  the 
laps  pasted  down. 

(14)  The  covers  are  lined  with  the  two  pieces 
prepared,  3^  inches  by  6J4  inches,  and  ^  inch 
by  6^  inches  respectively.    The  lining  paper  is 
pasted  upon  the  inside  of  the  covers.    A  space  is 
left  between  the  two  pieces  of  lining  paper  in  each 
case  that  the  hinge  may  act  freely. 

(15)  The  pages  and  covers  are  now  arranged 
and   punched   for  lacing.     The   covers  should   be 
punched  first  and  the  pages  may  be  marked  for 
punching  using  the  front  cover  as  a  guide.    There 
may   be   either   an   odd   or   an   even   number   of 
punched  holes. 

(16)  The   book   is   now   laced   in   the   manner 
shown  in  the  illustration.    An  ordinary  shoe  lace 
or  a  piece  of  colored  cord  will  serve  this  purpose. 
The  leaves  are  left  uncut. 

If  a  light  brown  cover  paper  is  used  a  tan  shoe- 
string will  be  effective  as  a  lace.  This  will  provide 
for  an  attractive  combination  of  differing  values 
of  a  single  hue,  monochromatic  scheme.  If  another 
color  is  used  a  white  lace  may  be  dyed  to  the  ap- 
propriate hue  and  value. 

The  making  of  a  decoration  for  the  cover  will 
furnish  an  opportunity  for  design.  The  design 
may  be  made  with  water  colors  or  crayons  or  by 


32        ELEMENTARY  INDUSTRIAL  ARTS 

pasting  upon  the  cover  a  cut  silhouette  and 
strips  of  paper  to  form  the  letters.  There  should 
be  a  lettered  title.  The  subject  of  the  book  and 
its  use  should  previously  have  been  determined. 

in 
THE  MAKING  OF  A  BOOK  OF  ONE  SIGNATURE 

The  cover  boards  for  this  second  book  will  be 
y&  inch  wider  and  X  mcn  longer  than  the  page, 
in  order  that  the  covers  may  project  beyond  the 
pages.  The  size  and  proportions  will  be  deter- 
mined by  the  purpose  for  which  it  is  to  be  made. 
Decide  upon  the  use  to  which  your  book  is  to  be 
put.  The  book  described  here  is  suitable  for  the 
mounting  and  preserving  of  reproductions  of 
masterpieces  in  art.  Each  picture  should  be  mount- 
ed on  a  page  of  odd  number,  while  its  story  is 
written  on  the  page  at  the  left  or  on  a  page  of 
even  number.  The  mounting  of  the  pictures, 
the  arrangement  of  written  material,  and  the 
observing  of  margins  according  to  the  best  typog- 
raphy, are  problems  in  design. 

(1)  Choose  a  rectangular  piece  of  strawboard 
large  enough  to  make  one  cover  board. 

(2)  Place  this  on  the  desk  so  that  it  lies  verti- 
cally in  reference  to  the  edge  of  the  desk  nearest 
you,  which  is  horizontal. 

(3)  Place   the   ruler  on   the  strawboard   along 
the  upper  edge. 


bookbinders.         bookbinders  linen  pasted,  to 
Unon,  5  x  9i"         covers ,  and  laps  pasted  doo/n 


cover  papers,  pasted,  to  covers,  l~pS  oFcover  paper  pasted 

corners  mitred.  down 


Six  sheets  8J  'x  13"  folded,     linen  clotk       linen  cloth,  in  . 

on  short  diamc?tGr  7|"x  4'  cloth  and  pages  sewed 

toqethcr 


A-  Book  of  Single  5iqna.ture 


34        ELEMENTARY  INDUSTRIAL  ARTS 

(4)  Measure  6«Hj  inches  from  the  left  corner  and 
place  a  point. 

(5)  Place  ruler  on  desk  just  below  the  lower 
edge  of  the  strawboard  and  place  a  point  on  this 
edge  6^  inches  from  the  left  edge. 

(6)  Draw  a  line  connecting  this  point  with  the 
one  on  the  upper  edge. 

(7)  Place  ruler  on  left  edge  of  strawboard  and 
measure  down  on  left  edge  8^  inches  from  upper 
corner  and  place  a  point. 

(8)  Measure   down   on   pencil   line   8^   inches 
from  upper  edge  and  place  a  point. 

(9)  Connect  this  point  with  that  on  the  left 
edge  of  the  strawboard. 

(10)  Cut  out  cover  board. 

(n)    Lay  out  and  cut  second  cover  board. 

(12)  To  lay  out  linen  back,  measure  off  on  back 
of    bookbinder's    linen,    dimensions    5    inches   by 
9^  inches,  just  as  you  measured  out  the  straw- 
board,  first  from  the  left  edge  and  then  from  the 
upper  edge. 

(13)  Draw  a  center  line  lengthwise  of  this  material . 

(14)  Draw  lines  across  either  end  parallel  with  the 
short  edges  of  the  material  and  ]4.  inch  from  them. 

(15)  Paste  the  linen  back  to  the  cover  boards, 
leaving  |/£  inch  between  the  boards  (the  thickness 
of  the  book  will  determine  this  measurement). 

Caution:  You  should  have  at  hand  a  pile  of 
papers  each  about  9  inches  by  12  inches.  Torn 
newspapers  will  serve  the  purpose.  These  are  to 


BOOKMAKING  35 

protect  your  work  as  it  is  being  put  through  the 
various  processes  of  pasting.  The  papers  should 
be  stacked  before  you  and  you  should  keep  your 
work  upon  the  uppermost  piece  which  is  always 
clean,  since  you  crumple  the  papers  and  drop 
them  on  the  floor  as  soon  as  they  become  soiled 
with  paste  or  glue.  These  papers  must  also  be 
used  under  the  hand  when  rubbing  one  pasted 
paper  upon  another.  At  the  close  of  the  period 
the  crumpled  papers  are  picked  up  and  put  into 
the  waste  paper  basket. 

(16)  To  prepare  cover  papers   5^6   inches  by 
9X    inches,    measure   as   suggested    above.     (See 
steps  2  to  9,  inclusive.) 

(17)  Paste  cover  paper  to  cover  boards,  cutting 
corners  on  miter  and  then  pasting  down  laps. 

(18)  Count  out  half  as  many  papers  as  there  are 
to  be  leaves  in  the  book,  in  this  case,  six  papers. 
There  should  be  a  supply  of  paper  stock  for  this 
purpose  cut  8^2  inches  by  13^  inches. 

(19)  Measure  and  cut  this  paper  into   pieces 
S^4  inches  by  13  inches. 

(20)  Fold  each  sheet  to  make  two  pages,  6^2 
by  8^  inches. 

(21)  A  piece  of  ordinary  linen  cloth  is  now  pre- 
pared for  holding  the  covers  to  the  leaves  of  the 
book.    It  is  measured  and  cut  y£  inch  shorter  than 
the  length  of  the  papers  (or  7^  inches  long  and 
4  inches  wide). 

(22)  Drawa  center  line  lengthwiseof  this  material. 


Letters  and  Figures  Designed  on  Squared  Paper 


BOOKMAKING  37 

(23)  Place  pages  together  and  stab  or  pierce  for 
sewing.    Stabbing  may  be  accomplished  by  means 
of  a  fine  awl  or  a  coarse  needle. 

(24)  Place  the  linen  outside  the  folded  pages, 
its  center  line  lying  along  the  stabbed  holes,  and 
sew  the  pages  and  linen  together,  the  needle  first 
entering  the  center  stabbed   hole,    proceeding  in 
and  out  to  one  end  of  the  row  of  stabbed  holes 
then  back  to  the  opposite  end,  and  so  on  to  the 
center,  where  the  knot  is  tied.    There  should  be 
an  odd  number  of  holes,  either  3  or  5. 

(25)  Fasten  the  signature  or  section  of  pages 
to  the  cover  boards  by  pasting  the  linen  to  the 
cover  boards,  being  careful  to  center  the  signature 
at  the  back,  in  reference  to  the  cover  boards. 

(26)  Paste   down    the   end   sheets    (the   leaves 
next  to  the  covers). 

IV 

THE  MAKING  OF  A  BOOK  OF  SEVERAL  SIGNATURES 

The  following  are  the  steps  in  the  making  of  a 
book  of  eight  signatures: 

(1)  Cut  eight  pieces  of  paper,  8  inches  by  12 
inches,  for  the  leaves. 

(2)  Place  the  sheets  in  a  stack  on  the  desk  with 
their  longer  sides  along  the  edge  of  the  desk  nearest 
you. 

(3)  Fold  the  back  edge  of  the  uppermost  sheet 
over  toward  you,  to  the  edge  of  the  desk,  and  crease. 


J   '  *if411JUi 

locatmo,  holas  for  s«>o/i.nq 


,  lau  cocdb  in  position. 


lacy  cords  cjluad.  to  uisilda  op 
covets,  clotk  pasted,  ovar  back 


cjnatures  sawed  together  with 
cords,  cover  boards  in,  place. 


tack  covavccl  >*atK  binder's  Unen.,  cut 
and.  fitUd  to  back  of  tta  book 


binder's  Urvm  flaps  pasted  to 
cover  boards,  back  flap  turned  in. 
c«l  paper  ^ 


cover  papers  pasted  to  boards, 
corners  mvtred.raadij  to  turn.  in. 


A  Book  of  Several  SiqnatutGS 


BOOKMAKING  39 

(4)  Fold   the  right  edge  of   this  folded   sheet 
over  toward  the  left,  to  within  Vl6  inch  of  the  left 
edge,  and  crease.  (The  l/l6  inch  is  allowed  for  the  next 
folding,  as  will  be  seen  after  the  next  operation.) 

(5)  Fold  the  sheet  again,  as  before,  this  time 
bringing  the  right  edge  entirely  over  to  the  left 
edge.     All  edges  at  the  left  should  now  be  even. 
The  folded  signature  should  measure  3  inches  by 
4  inches.     Turn  the  signature  so  that  its  folded 
edge  is  at  the  left  and  the  open  edge  toward  you. 

(6)  Number  the  pages  in  this  first  signature, 
placing    numbers    on    both    sides    of    each    leaf, 
as  in  an  ordinary  book.     Open  out  the  sheet  and 
note  the  arrangement  of  the  pages  as  numbered. 
Were  this  to  be  a  printed  book,  the  numbers  would 
guide  the  printer  in  arranging  his  pages  of  typed 
matter.    Fold  the  signature  together  again. 

(7)  Fold    the    seven    remaining    sheets    in    the 
same  way,  thus  forming  seven  additional  signatures. 

(8)  Take    the    first   signature   and    place    your 
ruler  so  that  it  lies  along  the  folded  edge,  which 
will  later  be  at  the  back  of  the  book.     Measure 
from  one  end  of  the  signature,  along  this  folded 
edge,    the    following    distances    (without    moving 
your  ruler  from  its  original  position)   and  place 
points:    %  inch,  ^  inch,  I  inch,  1^2  inches,  i^ 
inches,  2^4  inches,  2^  inches,  3  inches,  3^  inches, 
3^  inches.     These  are  the  points  through  which 
the  needle  will  pass  in  sewing  the  signatures  to 
the  lay  cords,  cords  which  in  turn  will  be  laced  into 


40        ELEMENTARY  INDUSTRIAL  ARTS 

the  covers,  thus  fastening  them  securely   to  the 
book. 

(9)  Place  the  signatures  in  a  stack,  as  they  will 
be  arranged  in  the  book,  placing  the  first  signature 
on    top.      Number    the    signatures,    using    small 
Roman   numerals.      Number  the   pages   consecu- 
tively, continuing  to  the  end  of  the  book.    What 
will  be  the  figure  on  the  last  page  numbered? 

(10)  Mark  the  folded  edge  of  each  of  the  sig- 
natures in  turn  for  sewing,  using  the  first  signa- 
ture as  a  pattern. 

(n)  Stab  holes  for  sewing.    This  may  be  done 
with  a  large  needle,  an  awl,  or  a  hammer  and  nail. 

(12)  Provide    four    lay    cords,    each    7    inches 
long.     Shoe  laces  are  excellent  for  the  purpose, 
though  any  strong  cord  will  do. 

(13)  Start  sewing  the  first  signature  to  the  lay 
cords.     The  progress  of  the  needle  will  be  as  fol- 
lows:   Into  first  signature  through  the  hole  nearest 
one  end  of  signature;    to  next  hole;    through  this 
hole  to  outside  of  signature;   around  first  lay  cord 
to   next   hole;     through   hole   into   signature;    on 
to   next   hole;     through    this   hole   to   outside   of 
signature;     around    second    lay    cord    and    into 
signature;  etc.,  until  the  last  hole  has  been  reached. 

(14)  Place    second    signature    in    position    for 
sewing.     The  progress  of  the  needle  will  be  as 
before,  except  that  the  direction  will  be  reversed. 
When  the  needle  has  reached  the  hole  above  the 
first  hole  entered  in  the  first  signature  a  knot  is 


BOOKMAKING  41 

tied  to  strengthen  the  union  of  the  first  two  sig- 
natures, the  loose  end  projecting  from  the  first 
signature  being  tied  to  the  thread  extending 
through  the  corresponding  stabbed  hole  in  the 
second  signature.  The  sewing  is  continued  to 
the  third  signature,  the  direction  of  sewing  again 
being  reversed.  When  the  last  signature  has  been 
sewed  to  the  lay  cords,  a  final  knot  is  tied  to 
strengthen  the  union  of  the  last  two  signatures. 
Place  glue  between  the  signatures  near  their 
back  edges.  A  mucilage  brush  or  splint  of  wood 
(a  toothpick)  should  be  used  for  this. 

(15)  Round  the  back  of  the  book  by  pressing 
the  front  edges  of  the  signatures  with  the  thumbs, 
and  place  it  in  a  vise  or  under  a  heavy  weight. 

(16)  When  the  glue  has  set,  spread  more  glue 
over  the  back  of  the  book,  being  careful  not  to 
get  any  of  it  on  the  parts  of  the  lay  cords  that 
are  to  act  as  hinges  for  the  covers.     (Lay  cords 
with  glue  on  them  will  break  off  when  the  covers 
are   opened.)      Leave  your   book  under   pressure 
until  all  the  glue  has  set.    (Paste  may  be  substi- 
tuted for  glue  if  desired.) 

(17)  Cut  two  cover  boards  3^  inches  by  4^ 
inches  from  strawboard  or  heavy  pasteboard. 

(18)  Place   covers   in   position,    allowing   them 
to   project   y&   inch   beyond   the   front,    top,   and 
bottom  edges  of  the  book.     The  space  thus  pro- 
vided between  the  back  of  the  book  and  the  cover 
boards  will  be  allowed  for  the  working  of  the  hinges. 


42        ELEMENTARY  INDUSTRIAL  ARTS 

(19)  Mark  points  on  cover  boards  to  indicate 
the  positions  of  the  lay  cords,  placing  these  points 
^  inch  in  from  the  long  edge  of  each  cover  board 
and  opposite  the  lay  cords. 

(20)  Punch  the  cover  boards  to  admit  the  lay 
cords  at  these  points.     The  cords  will  enter  from 
the  outside  of  the  book  and  will  be  glued  to  the 
inside  of  the  cover  boards. 

(21)  Cut  a  piece  of  thin  cloth  3  inches  by  5 
inches  for  the  hinge.     Fold  X  inch  of  this  material 
in  at  each  end  and   paste  down   upon  itself. 

(22)  Paste  this  cloth  down,  centering  it  on  the 
back  of  the  book. 

(23)  Place  the  book  between  the  covers,  thread 
the  lay  cords  through  from  the  outside,  and  glue 
their  ends  to  the  inside  of  the  cover  boards;    also 
paste  the  cloth  hinge  to  the  outside  of  the  cover 
boards.     (Remember  to  avoid  getting  any  paste  or 
glue  on  the  parts  of  cloth  which  are  to  act  as  hinges.) 

(24)  Cover  the  back  of  the  book  with  book- 
binder's linen,  pasting  it  to  the  cover  boards,  but 
NOT  to  the  back   of   the   book.       This    material 
must  be  cut  and  fitted  to  the  back  of  the  book. 
Try  thin   paper  and  work  out  a  pattern  before 
using  your  bookbinder's  linen.     When  you  have 
made  a  satisfactory  pattern  transfer  it  to  the  linen. 

(25)  Cover  the  boards  with  cover  paper  as  you 
did  in  making  the  book  of  one  signature.    (See 
page  35-) 

(26)  Prepare  a  piece  of  paper  for  the  end  sheets 


BOOKMAKING  43 

6  inches  by  8  inches,  and  cut  it  into  two  sheets 
4  inches  by  6  inches.  Each  of  these  is  folded  to 
form  two  end  sheets  3  inches  by  4  inches,  which 
may  be  decorated  by  an  all  over  surface  pattern 
design  printed  with  a  wood  block,  if  desired. 

(27)  Paste  in  the  end  sheets  so  that  the  covers 
may  be  opened  and  closed  without  difficulty. 

(28)  Put  the  book  in  press,  or  beneath  weights. 

v 

THE  MAKING  OF  A  PORTFOLIO  FOR  DRAWINGS 
OR  WRITTEN  WORK 

(1)  Cut  strawboard  9  inches  by  n   inches  for 
covers. 

(2)  Cut  a  piece  of  cloth  for  fastening  covers 
together,  4^  inches  by  13  inches. 

(3)  Place  cover  boards  on  desk,  I  inch  apart. 

(4)  Cover  the  cloth  with  paste;    then  paste  it 
on  the  cover  boards,  allowing  I  inch  of  cloth  to 
extend  at  each  end  of  cover  boards. 

(5)  Turn  the  I  inch  of  cloth  extending  at  each  end 
of  the  cover  boards  back  over  the  cover  boards 
and  paste  down. 

(6)  Cut   bookbinder's   linen,    for   covering   the 
back  of  the  portfolio,  4^  inches  by  12  inches. 

(7)  Draw  a  line  through  the  center  of  this  linen, 
lengthwise,  and  place  this  line  over  a  center  line 
drawn  lengthwise  on  the  piece  of  cloth ;  cover  with 
paste  and  paste  to  the  cover  boards. 

(8)  Turn  down  ^  inch  of  linen  extending  at 


stra\vboard,         cloth.      clotk  pasted. to  covers  with  Laps   binders 
9"x  n;  2pi<2C<?s        4-ixl3  tucncd.ua  '     Unen4ix 


binders  linen,  pasted,  to  covets        cover  papers  pasted  to  covers, 
corners  mitred,  laps  pasted, 
to  xnsida.  or  covacs     ' 


ndors 


linen 


.  - 

rioht  Uni,nq  paper  pas  bad. 
'  ^  place 


©  pasting  3  flaps  on.  left  COVQC, 
'     adding  lining 
r>aper 


Makinq  a  Portfolio 


EOOKMAKING  45 

each  end  on  the  inside  of  the  cover  boards,  and 
paste  down. 

(9)  Cut  cover  papers  8>£  inches  by  12  inches. 

(10)  Paste  cover  papers  on  cover  boards.    (Place 
them  2  inches  from  the  center  of  the  cloth  back, 
and  paste.)     Miter  the  corners. 

(n)   Cut  another  piece  of  bookbinder's  linen, 
4^  inches  by  io^j  inches. 

(12)  Place  this  on  the  inside  of  the  covers  so  that 
it  will  be  ^  inch  from  each  end  of  the  cover  boards. 
Center  it  on  the  cloth;   paste  securely  to  the  cloth 
to  make  the  hinge  stronger. 

(13)  Cut  the  inside  lining  papers,  7  inches  by 
ioy£  inches. 

(14)  Place  one  lining  paper  on  the  cover  board, 
so  it  will  be  ^i  inch  from  front,  top,  and  bottom 
of  portfolio,  and  paste  down. 

(15)  Cut    three    pieces    of    paper    for    flaps    in 
portfolio,   two   pieces  6%  inches  by   4^    inches, 
one  piece  10^  inches  by  4^4  inches. 

(16)  Turn  or  fold  down  ^  inch  on  a  long  edge 
of  each  piece  of  paper. 

(17)  Paste    these    folded    edges    to    the    cover 
board  still  unlined,  ^  inch  from  each  of  its  edges, 
using  the  shorter  pieces  for  the  shorter  edges. 

(18)  Place    the    other    lining    paper    over    the 
inside  of  these  flaps  and  over  the  remaining  sur- 
face.     This  will  make  the  pocket  of  the  portfolio. 

(19)  Lay   portfolio   flat   in   press  and   leave   it 
until  dry. 


46        ELEMENTARY  INDUSTRIAL  ARTS 

(20)  A  design  should  be  worked  out  for  the 
portfolio,  suggestive  of  its  use. 

VI 

POSTERS 

Posters  offer  excellent  opportunities  for  com- 
bining industry  and  art.  The  motive  for  making 
one  might  well  be  the  advertising  of  a  school 
game  or  entertainment.  In  the  making  of  a 
class  poster  all  members  of  the  class  are  provided 
with  linoleum  blocks  just  alike.  An  entire  al- 
phabet is  cut,  each  pupil  cutting  a  letter.  Each 
member  of  the  class  now  sketches  a  small  poster 
design.  The  most  satisfactory  design  is  chosen  for 
the  large  class  poster.  The  large  poster  is  printed, 
each  pupil  in  turn  inking  and  impressing  a  letter. 
The  pupils  should  form  in  line,  each  with  type 
block  in  hand,  to  spell  out  the  words  needed. 

In  applying  the  print  block  to  the  paper,  pressure 
must  be  exerted  upon  each  of  the  four  edges  of 
the  block  in  turn.  Only  by  taking  this  precaution 
is  the  printing  of  a  clear  image  assured.  If  a 
press  or  an  improvised  press  is  used  this  would, 
of  course,  be  unnecessary.  Two  pupils  should 
be  chosen  to  act  as  foremen.  It  must  be  kept 
in  mind  that  the  letters  forming  the  words  must 
be  placed  close  together  and  that  the  spaces 
between  the  words  should  appear  equal.  The 
printed  lines  can  be  kept  straight  by  means  of 
thumb  tacks  and  strings.  The  principle  of  balance 


BOOKMAKING  47 

should  be  observed  in  the  arrangement  of  printed 
matter  upon  the  page.  A  pad  of  soft  papers, 
placed  underneath  the  poster  paper,  will  facilitate 
the  printing. 

THE  MONASTIC  SCRIBE 
To  those  dim  alcoves,  far  withdrawn, 
He  turned  with  measured  steps  and  slow, 
Trimming  his  lantern  as  he  went; 
And  there,  among  the  shadows,  bent 
Above  one  ponderous  folio, 
With  whose  miraculous  text  were  blent 
Seraphic  faces:  Angels,  crowned 
With  rings  of  melting  amethyst; 
Mute,  patient  Martyrs,  cruelly  bound 
To  blazing  fagots;  here  and  there, 
Some  bold,  serene  Evangelist, 
Or  Mary  in  her  sunny  hair; 
And  here  and  there  from  out  the  words 
A  brilliant  tropic  bird  took  flight; 
And  through  the  margins  many  a  vine 
Went  wandering — roses,  red  and  white, 
Tulip,  wind-flower,  and  columbine 
Blossomed.    To  his  believing  mind 
These  things  were  real,  and  the  wind, 
Blown  through  the  mullioned  window,  took 
Scent  from  the  lilies  in  the  book. 

THOMAS  BAILEY  ALDRICH 
From  "Friar  Jerome's  Beautiful  Book."    Houghton  Mifflin  Company. 


EXERCISES  FOR  STUDY  AND  REVIEW 
(i)  Compare  the  methods  of  bookmaking  that  obtained 
during  the  middle  ages  with  those  of  to-day. 


48        ELEMENTARY  INDUSTRIAL  ARTS 

(2)  Visit  a  small  job  printing  establishment  if  possible. 
If  you  have  a  print  shop  in  the  school  building  you  should 
visit  it  as  well.    Write  an  account  of  your  visit  and  make 
at  least  three  drawings  to  be  used  as  illustrations. 

(3)  How  are  we  who* live  to-day  affected  by  books  and 
other  publications? 

(4)  Imagine   the  world   without   any   printing   for   the 
period  of  one  year,  beginning  to-day.    What  do  you  think 
would  be  the  result? 

(5)  How  is  type  set  for  printing? 

(6)  Who  was  John  Gutenberg  and  what  did  he  contribute 
to  the  art  of  printing? 

(7)  See  if  you  can  find  out  how  many  signatures  were 
used  in  the  book  which  you  are  now  reading.    How  many 
do  you  find?  How  can  you  tell? 

(8)  Give  a  brief  interpretation  of  "The  Engraver"  by 
Mathey.     (See  page  15.) 

(9)  Benjamin   Franklin,   who  wrote  the  poem  quoted 
at  the  close  of  the  next  chapter,  was  a  printer  by  trade. 
See  what  you  can  find  out  about  Franklin  as  a  printer. 
Look  in  the  encyclopedia  or  elsewhere. 

(10)  Which   illustrations  in    this  chapter  are  halftone 
reproductions  and  which  are  line  cuts? 

(n)  To  what  extent  does  a  printer  have  to  be  an  artist? 
Do  you  think  you  would  be  successful  at  the  printer's 
trade?  Why? 

(12)  Make  a  careful  copy  on  squared  paper,  of  the  alpha- 
bet given  on  page  36. 

SUGGESTED  READING  ABOUT  THE  MAKING  OF  BOOKS 

Aldrich. — Friar  Jerome  s  Beautiful  Book  (a  poem  of  the 
monastic  scribe).  Hough  ton  Mifflin  Company. 

Bush  and  Bush. — Industrial  and  Applied  Art  Books,  V, 
VI,  VII,  VIII.  Atkinson,  Mentzer  &  Co. 


BOOKMAKING  49 

Buxton  and  Cur  ran. — Paper  and  Cardboard  Construction. 
The  Menomonie  Press. 

Cockerell. — Bookbinding  and  the  Care  of  Books.  D.  Apple- 
ton  &  Co. 

Davenport. — The  Book,  Its  History  and  Development. 
Archibald  Constable  &  Co. 

Dobbs. — Illustrative  Handwork  (Pages  52-57).  The  Mac- 
millan  Company. 

Earle—  Child  Life  in  Colonial  Days  (Chapters  V  and  VI). 
The  Macmillan  Company. 

Forman. — Stories  of  Useful  Inventions  (Chapter  XV). 
The  Century  Company. 

Holland. — Historic  Inventions  (See  Gutenberg  and  the  Print- 
ing Press}.  George  Jacobs  &  Co. 

Rawlings .—  The  Story  of  Books.    D.  Appleton  &  Co. 

Rodgers  and  Others. — Trade  Foundations  (See  index  under 
Bookbinding,  Pressman).  G.  M.  Jones,  Indianapolis. 

Rocheleau. — Great  American  Industries  (Pages  156,  184, 
208).  A.  Flanagan  Company. 

Snow  and  Froehlich.  —  Industrial  Art  Text  Books,  V,  VI, 
VII,  VIII.  The  Prang  Company. 

Stillwell.— The  School  Print  Shop.    Rand  McNally  &  Co. 

Wells. — How  the  Present  Came  from  the  Past,  Book  Two 
(Index  under  Alphabet,  Books,  Brick  Stamp,  Cameo, 
Molds,  Picture  Writing,  Records,  Scribe).  The  Mac- 
millan Company. 


Typical  Paper  Mill 


II 


PAPERMAKING 

It  is  not  possible  for  us  to  obtain  the  earliest 
history  of  the  race,  for  its  activities  in  those 
remote  times  were  not  recorded  as  they  would 
be  to-day.  History  was  at  first  repeated  from 
father  to  son  by  word  of  mouth,  and  thus  traditions 
were  handed  down  from  generation  to  generation. 

Later,  people  began  to  see  that  sometimes 
traditions  were  forgotten  or  the  stories  retold  in 
different  ways.  It  was  evident  that  a  method 
was  needed  for  recording  events  accurately  and 
for  all  time.  To  meet  this  need,  stone  covenants 
or  cairns  —  great  heaps  of  stone  —  were  set  up.  Later 
still,  obelisks  with  inscriptions  on  them  were 
employed.  There  is  in  Central  Park  in  New  York 
City  an  obelisk  which  was  brought  to  New  York 
from  Egypt. 

50 


PAPERMAKING  51 

Events  of  minor  importance  were  of  course 
left  unrecorded  because  it  was  too  expensive  to 
set  up  cairns  or  obelisks  to  commemorate  these. 
The  people  of  Chaldea  and  Assyria  overcame 
this  difficulty  by  inscribing  their  records  on  soft 
clay  tablets  which  were  sometimes  baked  in  a  fire. 
Many  of  these  tablets  are  still  preserved.  Tablets 
of  bone,  brass,  lead,  'and  gold  were  also  used  for 
inscriptions.  Later  still,  wooden  boards  with  a  thin 
coat  of  wax  were  posted  in  public  places  in  the  towns 
of  the  Roman  Empire.  Each  day  the  news  items 
were  scratched  on  these  boards.  When  men  wished 
to  erase  the  inscriptions  they  simply  heated  the 
wax  and  allowed  it  to  cool  again  into  a  hard, 
smooth  slab.  These  news  boards  were  the  fore- 
runners of  our  modern  newspaper. 

Messages  often  had  to  be  sent  long  distances 
and  the  tablets  and  boards  were  too  heavy  to 
transport.  Thus  writings  came  to  be  inscribed 
on  the  dried  skins  of  animals.  It  was  discovered 
also  that  layers  of  the  papyrus  reed  could  be  made 
into  a  satisfactory  writing  material.  This  plant 
grew  along  the  Nile  River  in  Egypt.  Layers  of 
papyrus  were  laid  across  one  another  and,  after 
being  moistened  with  water  and  pounded,  were 
compressed  to  a  thin  sheet  and  polished  with  a 
smooth  piece  of  ivory.  Since  papyrus  grew  only 
along  the  banks  of  the  Nile,  the  King  of  Egypt  at 
that  time  had  entire  control  of  the  supply  of  the 
world's  best  writing  material. 


52        ELEMENTARY  INDUSTRIAL  ARTS 

When  the  King  of  Pergamos  in  Asia  wished  to 
create  a  great  library,  the  King  of  Egypt  refused  to 
furnish  him  with  the  papyrus  needed.    The  King 
of  Pergamos  then  discovered  a  method  of  making 
parchment   from   the   skins   of   sheep,    goats,    and 
calves.     Thus,    his    library    grew    rapidly.     The 
skins  were  first  steeped  in  lime 
to    remove    the   oil,    hair,    and 
foreign  matter.     Next  they  were 
stretched    tight     upon     frames, 
and    scraped  to  a  uniform  thick- 
ness by  means  of  sharp  knives. 
They  were  then  sprinkled  with 
chalk  and  polished  with  pumice 
stone.        Although     parchment 
proved  to  be  an  excellent  mate- 
rial for  writing,  it  was  entirely 
too  expensive  for  any  but  the 
rich.    A    cheaper    material   was 
needed. 

As  early  as  600  A.D.,  the  Chinese  had  made  a 
material  upon  which  writing  could  be  inscribed,  by 
forming  into  a  sheet  the  fibers  of  the  wood  of  the 
mulberry  tree.  About  751  A.D.,  the  Arabians  also 
learned  the  secret  and  made  paper  from  other 
vegetable  fibers.  This  knowledge  in  turn  was 
acquired  by  the  Moors,  and  with  the  capture  of 
Samarkand  by  the  Spaniards  it  was  introduced 
into  Spain,  and  eventually  throughout  the  entire 
continent  of  Europe.  Papermaking  soon  flourished 


Egyptian  Papyrus 


PAPERMAKING 


53 


in  Holland,  Germany,  and  England.  With  the 
immigration  of  Hollanders  to  America,  the  first 
American  paper  mill  was  established  at  German- 


Mary  R.  Corwvelt 


The  Paper  Maker 


H.  Reeve  Angel  &•  Co.,  It 


town,  Pennsylvania.     Paper  was  then  made  only 
by  hand  and  from  rag  pulp. 

Some  of  the  raw  materials  used  in  the  making 
of  paper  to-day  are  linen  (flax),  cotton  rags,  wood, 
esparto  grass,  straw,  hemp,  jute,  bamboo,  silk, 
and  sugar  cane  refuse.  These  materials,  according 
to  their  different  fiber  formation,  are  ground  to 


54 


ELEMENTARY  INDUSTRIAL  ARTS 


pulp  as  are  the  soft  woods,  or  cooked  as  are  straw 
and  some  of  the  hard  woods.  After  this  pre- 
liminary process  they  are  bleached,  except  when 
this  is  not  desired,  and  are  made  into  paper. 


utler  Paper  Corporations 


Sorting  Rags 


Paper  is  of  three  general  varieties, — writing 
paper,  paper  for  printing,  and  wrapping  paper. 
Among  the  special  kinds  are  vulcanized,  corrugated 
(straw),  carpet,  waxed,  cre"pe,  blue-print,  papier- 
mache,  asbestos,  tar,  cardboard,  stencil,  transpar- 
ent, tissue,  and  filter.  Paper  has  not  only  filled  the 
demand  for  a  cheap,  serviceable  writing  material 
on  which  the  history  and  development  of  the  race 
is  being  recorded,  but  it  is  also  useful  in  many  other 


PAPERMAKING 


55 


ways.  Layers  of  wood-pulp  paper  subjected  to  an 
enormous  pressure  produce  a  very  hard  substance 
which  is  even  used  sometimes  to  cover  the  rims  or 
tires  of  car  wheels. 

The  manufacturer  of  paper  is  dependent  upon 
the  vast  natural  forest  resources  of  the  country 


U.  S.  Forest  Service 
Logs  in  Pond  near  Pulp  and  Paper  Mill,  Lincoln,  New  Hampshire 

for  a  supply  of  wood,  and  upon  the  rag  picker 
for  a  supply  of  rags.  The  logs  from  which  paper 
is  to  be  made,  after  entering  one  end  of  the  mill, 
go  through  the  several  processes  of  grinding  and 
cooking  which  finally  reduce  them  to  pulp.  The 
beating  of  this  pulp  and  the  running  of  it  into 
the  paper  machine  which  transforms  it  into  paper 
is  most  interesting.  The  rags  are  sorted  according 
to  their  different  qualities,  before  they  go  through 


56        ELEMENTARY  INDUSTRIAL  ARTS 

the  boiling  and  bleaching  processes.  The  white 
pulp,  afterwards,  is  either  mixed  with  wood  pulp  or 
used  alone,  and  is  run  through  the  beating  engines 
from  which  it  comes  as  a  snow-white  sheet. 

We  should  all  assist  in  the  conservation  of  paper 
by  helping  to  perpetuate  our  trees  and  forests  and 
by  saving  all  our  old  rags  and  waste  paper.  If  these 
materials  are  thrown  away  or  destroyed,  we  shall 
have  to  pay  higher  prices  for  the  paper  which 
we  buy,  for  paper  materials  are  becoming  more 
scarce  all  the  time. 

Rags  to  be  used  in  the  manufacture  of  paper 
are  gathered  and  sent  in  bales  to  the  paper  mill, 
where  the  rags  are  fed  into  a  machine  called  a 
thrasher,  which  beats  them  and  removes  most  of 
the  dirt.  This  is  carried  off  by  means  of  tubes. 
The  rags  are  then  sorted  and  all  buttons,  hooks, 
eyes,  and  other  hard  substances  removed. 

The  largest  rags  are  now  cut  by  hand  into  smaller 
pieces  and  are  put  through  a  cutting  machine, 
which  chops  them  into  smaller  bits.  These  are  fed 
into  another  machine  called  a  whipper.  The  whip- 
per  contains  two  cylinders,  one  operating  inside  the 
other.  Spikes  project  from  the  outside  of  the  inner 
cylinder  and  from  the  inside  of  the  outer  one.  As 
the  two  cylinders  are  turned  in  opposite  directions, 
the  rags  passing  between  the  spikes  are  literally 
torn  into  shreds,  while  tubes  again  carry  off  the 
dust. 

The  real  process  of  cleaning  begins  when  the 


PAPERMAKING  57 

huge  lids  of  the  rotary  boiler  are  opened  to  receive 
the  torn  rags  into  their  solution  of  lime  or  caustic 
soda.  The  whole  mass  is  cooked  for  about  twelve 
hours  by  means  of  steam,  after  which  the  rags, 
in  the  form  of  pulp,  are  dumped  on  the  floor  from 
the  boiler,  and  the  lime  or  soda  solution,  which 
contains  a  great  deal  of  dirt,  is  allowed  to  drain  off. 

The  pulp  is  now  put  into  washers  similar  to 
those  used  in  laundries,  and  the  remaining  dirt 
and  lime  or  soda  solution  are  washed  out.  The  pulp 
is  then  rinsed  in  clean  water  and  bleaching  material 
until  the  pulp  finally  comes  from  the  washers 
bleached  white. 

The  pulp  is  then  dumped  into  concrete  vaults 
with  perforated  floors  called  drainers,  and  is 
allowed  to  drain  slowly.  Sometimes  several  weeks 
are  required  for  this  process.  Next  it  is  subjected 
to  beaters,  which  further  break  and  tear  it  and 
separate  the  fibers.  Other  substances,  such  as 
wood  fibers,  are  sometimes  added  during  the 
process  of  beating  to  produce  a  stronger  paper. 
Rosin  is  worked  in  to  hold  the  fibers  together,  and 
coloring  materials  if  the  paper  is  to  be  colored,  both 
of  which  are  held  to  the  fibers  by  adding  alum. 

The  pulp,  containing  the  materials  added  during 
the  beating  process,  is  now  run  into  storage  chests 
containing  wrater.  These  chests  are  furnished  with 
agitators,  or  paddles  similar  to  those  of  a  churn, 
which  constantly  stir  the  liquid  and  mix  it  thor- 
oughly. The  water  containing  the  pulp  in  even 


58        ELEMENTARY  INDUSTRIAL  ARTS 

suspension  is  run  over  shallow  boxes,  the  bottoms 
of  which  are  covered  with  felt,  and  upon  these  felt 
bottoms  is  deposited  the  dirt  which  was  too  heavy 
to  be  carried  out  in  the  earlier  processes. 


! 


Beater 


Butler  Paper  Corporations 


The  liquid  pulp  is  now  forced  through  a  screen 
which  further  refines  it  and  straightens  out  the 
fibers.  It  is  then  conducted  to  an  endless  belt 
of  wire  cloth  which  carries  the  pulp  along.  As 
it  moves,  the  water  passes  through  the  belt,  but  the 
fibers  are  carried  on.  Under  the  belt  a  trough  car- 
ries off  all  the  surplus  liquid  and  conducts  it  back 
into  the  storage  chests. 

The  pulp  on  the  belt  is  carried  between  rolls 


PAPERMAKING 


59 


which  wring  it  just  as   clothes  are  wrung   in   a 
wringer;  these  are  called  the  press  rolls.    A  separate 


Butler  Paper  Corporations 
Pulp  Being  Carried  to  First  Set  of  Press  Rolls 

wire  roll  over  the  wire  cloth  belt,  called  a  dandy 
roll,  sometimes  impresses  into  the  pulp  sheet  the 
watermark,  which  is  generally  the  trade  mark 
of  the  manufacturer  by  whom  the  paper  is  to 
be  used. 


6o        ELEMENTARY  INDUSTRIAL  ARTS 

From  these  rolls  the  pulp,  which  we  may  now 
call  paper,  passes  between  still  other  rolls  which, 
heated  by  steam,  dry  up  the  water.  After  this 
the  dry  paper  passes  through  highly  polished 
rolls,  called  calenders.  These  compress  it,  and  give 


Butler  Paper  Corporations 

Paper  Machine,  Showing  Front  End  of  Cylinder  Drier 

it  a  smooth  finished  surface.  The  amount  of 
finish  is  generally  determined  by  the  surface  of 
these  last  mentioned  calender  rolls;  that  is,  if 
an  exceptionally  high  finish  is  desired,  a  highly  pol- 
ished roll  must  be  used.  The  paper  passes  through 
a  great  number  of  rolls  in  turn,  until  the  proper 
thickness,  smoothness,  and  gloss  are  obtained. 
Two  methods  are  used  in  manufacturing  paper 


PAPERMAKING 


61 


from  wood  pulp.  If  the  pulp  is  to  be  used  for  news- 
print only,  the  wood  is  merely  pressed  against  a 
stone  similar  to  a  grindstone,  and  ground  away  into 
fine  pulp.  If  the  pulp  is  to  be  used  for  writing  paper, 
or  for  wrapping  paper,  it  is  boiled  with  acid  or  alka- 


Butler  Pa[>er  Corporations 

FESTOON  DRIER 
Paper  Hanging  in  Festoons  at  the  Right 

lies,  in  a  cylindric  tank  called  a  digester,  and  in  this 
way  is  reduced  to  a  pulp. 

The  poorest  grades  of  paper  are  made  of  wood  or 
by  combining  wood  fiber  with  old  rags  and  papers ; 
the  finest  grades  are  made  from  new  rags  direct 
from  the  cloth  mills. 


62        ELEMENTARY  INDUSTRIAL  ARTS 

If  the  paper  is  to  be  ruled  as  we  find  it  in  our 
school  tablets  and  composition  books,  it  is  first 
cut  into  large  sheets  when  it  comes  from  the  rolls  in 
the  paper  mills.  Then  the  tablet  maker  cuts  it  into 
sheets  of  the  proper  size.  He  rules  it  on  a  ruling 
machine  by  passing  the  large  sheets  under  station- 
ary pens  which  are  automatically  fed  with  ink  of 
the  required  colors. 

How  TO  MAKE  PAPER 

Bring  clean  scraps  of  white  cloth  (linen  pre- 
ferred) to  school. 

(1)  Tear  the  rags  into  little  bits  about  ]4  inch 
square   or   smaller.      Pull   threads   apart.      A  file 
card  or  other  card  made  by  driving  brads  through 
a   piece   of   thick   pasteboard   will   make   this   an 
easy  matter.     A  brush  with  wire  teeth  will  also 
answer  the  purpose. 

(2)  Four  or  five  sticks  of  caustic  soda  should 
be  dissolved  in  six  quarts  of  water. 

Caution:  Caustic  soda,  or  sodium  hydroxide,  comes  in  stick  form 
and  is  poisonous.  It  should  be  provided  and  cared  for  by  the  teacher. 

(3)  The  fine  bits  of  cloth  are  now  stirred  into 
this.    Perhaps  nine  quarts  of  shredded  linen  packed 
tight  will  be  enough  to  make  forty  sheets  of  paper 
4^  inches  by  7  inches. 

(4)  The   caustic   soda   solution    containing   the 
rags  in  suspension  is  boiled  for  from  six  to  eight 
hours.     This  may  be  done  out  of  doors  if  there 
is  no  stove  in  the  school  building. 


PAPERMAKING  63 

(5)  Rinse  the  rags  thoroughly  in  three  waters. 
Pour  the  mixture  into  a  colander  and  wring  the 
rags   each   time.      A   soap   solution,    milky-white, 
will  be  useful  in  this  washing  process. 

(6)  Run  the  rags  through  a  food   chopper    or 
clip  very  fine  with  scissors,  reducing  them  to  a 
fine  pulp. 


(7)  If  it  is  desired   that  the   paper  should   be 
tinted,  the  pulp  should  be  passed  through  water 
containing  dye.     It  should  be  washed  after  dyeing. 

(8)  Put  pulp  into  a  wash  of  six  quarts  of  water 
containing  eight  tablespoonfuls  of  starch,  four  of 
liquid  glue,  and  one  of  bluing. 

(9)  Agitate  the  wash  by  stirring  with  a  paddle  or 
stick  and  while  the  pulp  is  held  in  even  suspension 
dip  the  mold,  a  screen  the  size  of  the  proposed 


64        ELEMENTARY  INDUSTRIAL  ARTS 

sheet  of  paper,  into  the  liquid.  (A  mold  may  be 
made  by  stretching  a  piece  of  ordinary  wire  fly 
screen  over  a  small  wooden  frame.)  When  the 
mold  is  lifted  out,  the  liquid  is  allowed  to  drain 
back  into  the  tank. 

(10)  Place  the  deckle — a  separate,  thin,  wooden 
frame — over  the  mold  to  form  the  deckle  edge. 
(See  illustration.) 


mold  and  deckle. 


(n)  Turn  the  thin  layer  of  pulp  which  has 
been  deposited  on  the  screen  into  a  shallow  dish. 
(A  pie  tin,  in  the  bottom  of  which  a  few  holes 
have  been  pierced  with  a  nail  and  hammer,  will 
answer  this  purpose.)  A  piece  of  cheesecloth 
should  first  be  placed  in  the  dish  in  order  to 
prevent  the  pulp  from  sticking  fast. 

(12)  Cover  this  first  layer  of  pulp  with  a  small 
piece  of  cheesecloth. 

(13)  Deposit   a   second   layer   of   pulp   on   the 
cheesecloth;  cover  it  with  cheesecloth.    Repeat  this 
until  the  desired  number  of  sheets  has  been  pro- 
vided. 

(14)  Apply  pressure  to  the  pile  by  placing  it 


PAPERMAKING  65 

in  a  letter  press,  by  means  of  clamps  or  hand 
screws,  or  by  weights,  such  as  flatirons  or  heavy 
stones.  The  liquid  will  run  out  through  the  pierced 
holes  as  the  pressure  is  applied.  It  is  caught  in  a 
pail  as  it  is  squeezed  out.  The  sheets  of  paper  are 
now  removed,  each  on  its  own  piece  of  cheesecloth. 
They  are  still  damp. 

(15)  Make  a  size,   using  one   dessert   spoonful 
of  ordinary  gelatine  dissolved  in  a  cup  of  boiling 
water. 

(16)  Place  one  of  the  sheets  on  the  screen.    Take 
a  piece  of  cloth  somewhat  larger  than  the  screen 
and  place  it  over  the  sheet  of  pulp.     Invert  the 
screen  on   the   table  and   lift   it   from   the   pulp. 
Cover  the  pulp  over  with  a  second  piece  of  cloth. 
We  now  have  the  pulp  sheet  sandwiched  between 
the  two  pieces  of  cloth. 

(17)  Keeping  this  flat,  pass  it  through  a  clothes 
wringer.      This   process   may   be   dispensed   with 
if  time  has  been  allowed   for  the  more  gradual 
drying  out  of  the  pulp  sheet.      (If  a  wringer  is 
used,  steps  n,  12  and  13  may  be  omitted.) 

(18)  Put  back  each  sheet  of  paper  on  the  mold 
for   sizing.      This    may    be    done   with    a    bristle 
brush.     (See  Step  15.) 

(19)  Each  sheet  in  turn  is  now  placed  between 
two  pieces  of  cloth  and  is  ironed  with  a  hot  flat- 
iron  until  it  is  quite  firm  and  dry. 

(20)  If  a  smooth  finish  is  desired,  the  paper  may 
now  be  removed  from  between  the  pieces  of  cloth 


66        ELEMENTARY  INDUSTRIAL  ARTS 

and  ironed  dry.  Rub  the  bottom  of  the  flatiron 
occasionally  on  a  piece  of  fine  sandpaper  or  emery 
cloth  to  keep  it  clean  while  in  use. 


PAPER 

Some  wit  of  old — such  wits  of  old  there  were — 
Whose  hints  showed  meaning,  whose  allusions  care, 
By  one  brave  stroke  to  mark  all  human  kind, 
Called  clear  blank  paper  every  infant's  mind, 
Where  still,  as  opening  sense  her  dictates  wrote, 
Fair  Virtue  put  a  seal  or  Vice  a  blot. 

The  thought  was  happy,  pertinent,  and  true; 
Methinks  a  genius  might  the  plan  pursue, 

Various  the  papers  various  wants  produce — 
The  wants  of  fashion,  elegance,  and  use; 
Men  are  as  various;   and,  if  right  I  scan, 
Each  sort  of  paper  represents  some  man. 

Pray,  note  the  fop — half  powder  and  half  lace — • 
Nice,  as  a  bandbox  were  his  dwelling-place; 
He's  the  gilt  paper,  which  apart  you  store, 
And  lock  from  vulgar  hands  in  the  escritoire.* 

The  wretch  whom  Avarice  bids  to  pinch  and  spare, 
Starve,  cheat,  and  pilfer,  to  enrich  an  heir, 
Is  coarse  brown  paper;  such  as  peddlers  choose 
To  wrap  up  wares,  which  better  men  will  use. 

*  A  writing  table  used  in  colonial  times. 


PAPERMAKING  67 

Observe  the  maiden,  innocently  sweet; 
She's  fair  white  paper,  an  unsullied  sheet, 
On  which  the  happy  man  whom  Fate  ordains 
May  write  his  name,  and  take  her  for  his  pains. 

From  "Paper,"  by  BENJAMIN  FRANKLIN 


EXERCISES  FOR  STUDY  AND  REVIEW 

(1)  Why  was  paper  invented? 

(2)  For  what  purposes  is  parchment  used  to-day? 

(3)  What  kind  of  paper  do  you  prefer  for  writing  with 
ink,    for   drawing   with    pencil,    for   painting   with    water 
color? 

(4)  How  can  we  all  help  to  reduce  the  cost  of  paper? 

(5)  What  is  your  opinion  of  the  quality  of  paper  used 
in  this  book?   Of  what  do  you  think  it  was  made? 

(6)  What    is  meant  by    the  watermark    in    a   sheet  of 
paper?    See  how  many  watermarks  you  can  collect.   These 
can  be  mounted  on  a  large  sheet  of  thick  pasteboard  into 
which  rectangular  holes  are  cut  to  frame  in  each  water- 
marked sheet  of  paper.     The  mounted  samples  of  paper 
should  be  hung  in  the  window  where  the  light  will  shine 
through  the  paper  and  show  the  watermarks. 

(7)  How  is  paper  made  by  hand? 

(8)  Tell  the  story  of  "The  Papermaker,"  by  Mary  R. 
Corn  well. 

(9)  How  is  paper  made  by  machinery? 

(10)  Where  are  some  of  the  largest   American   paper 
mills  located?    Which  of  these  mills  use  wood  pulp  and 
which  use  rag  pulp  as  the  foundation  for  their  product? 

(n)  Make  a  diagram  to  show  how  paper  is  made  in 
the  factory,  indicating  all  important  machines. 


68        ELEMENTARY  INDUSTRIAL  ARTS 

SUGGESTED  READING  ABOUT  PAPER 

Bishop  and  Keller. — Industry  and  Trade  (Index  under 
Paper,  Papermaking,  Papyrus  Plant).  Ginn  &  Co. 

Bush  and  Bush. — Industrial  and  Applied  Art  Books,  V, 

VI,  VII,  VIII.    Atkinson,  Mentzer  &  Company. 

Butler. — The  Story  of  Papermaking.  J.  W.  Butler  Paper 
Co.,  Chicago. 

Buxton  and  Curran. — Paper  and  Cardboard  Construction. 
Manual  Arts  Press. 

Earle. — Child  Life  in  Colonial  Days  (Page  79,  Scarcity  of 
Paper).  The  Macmillan  Company. 

Rocheleau. — Great  American  Industries  (Page  138).  A. 
Flanagan  Company. 

Rodgers  and  Others. — Trade  Foundations  (Index  under 
Paper).  G.  M.  Jones,  Indianapolis. 

Sindall . — Manufacture  of  Paper.    Archibald  Constable  &  Co. 

Snow  and  Froehlich. — Industrial  Art  Text  Books,  V,  VI, 

VI I ,  VI 1 1 .    The  Prang  Company. 

Tarr  and  McMurry. — New  Geographies,  Second  Book 
(Index  under  Bamboo,  Dyewoods,  Fiber  Products, 
Pulp  Mills).  The  Macmillan  Company. 

Toothaker. — Commercial  Raw  Materials  (Index  under 
Paper).  Ginn  &  Co. 

Wells.— How  the  Present  Came  from  the  Past,  Book  II 
(Index  under  Papyrus,  Paper).  The  Macmillan 
Company. 

Williams. — How  It  Is  Made  (Chapter  II,  Papermaking). 
Thomas  Nelson  and  Sons. 


Baskets  Made  by  School  Children 
III 

THE  MANUFACTURE  OF  BASKETS 
AND  BOXES 

Most  manufacturers  and  dealers  place  their  prod- 
ucts upon  the  market  in  baskets,  boxes,  or  cartons,  for 
the  consumer  of  the  products  realizes  that  they  reach 
him  in  good  condition  only  when  properly  packed. 

Food  products  must  be  so  packed  that  freshness 
for  a  long  time  will  be  assured.  A  certain  biscuit 
company  packs  all  its  products  for  the  retail  trade  in 
patented  sealed  packages  which  exclude  moisture 
and  dust.  The  package  is  lined  with  paraffined 
paper  and  covered  with  an  ordinary  grade  of  paper 
upon  which  the  name  of  the  product  is  printed. 

Cartons  are  made  of  different  kinds  of  paper  ac- 
cording to  the  special  use  to  which  they  are  to  be 
put.  For  example,  those  used  for  the  packing  of 
silverware  are  sometimes  made  from  grass-bleached 
paper,  which  contains  no  chemicals  that  will  tarnish 
the  silver. 

It  will  probably  be  a  matter  of  but  a  few  years 
before  wooden  boxes,  except  for  very  heavy  packing, 
will  be  relics  of  the  past.  They  are  rapidly  being 
69 


70        ELEMENTARY  INDUSTRIAL  ARTS 

replaced  by  corrugated  containers.  Straw  is  used 
in  the  making  of  these  containers,  whereas  rags 
and  wood  pulp  are  employed  in  the  manufacture 
of  all  the  finer  grades  of  paper  boxes.  Corrugated 
containers,  as  substitutes  for  wooden  boxes,  are 
light  and  strong  and  they  withstand  water  fairly 
well.  The  air  spaces  provided  in  the  walls  keep 
out  heat  and  cold.  The  arched  construction  of 
corrugated  paper  gives  strength  and  elasticity 
with  comparatively  small  weight,  and  the  cost 
is  less  than  that  of  dressed  wooden  boards. 

Baskets  and  berry  crates  are  generally  made 
from  thin  strips  of  basswood.  The  logs  from  which 
they  are  made  are  sawed  to  the  proper  lengths  and, 
after  being  boiled  for  about  five  hours  and  stripped 
of  their  bark,  are  put  on  a  turning  spindle  and 
revolved  against  a  knife  which  cuts  off  thin  strips 
of  the  wood.  These  strips  are  cut  by  machine  to 
the  proper  lengths  and  widths  for  basket  splints. 
After  the  splints  have  been  woven  and  fastened,  the 
basket  is  pressed  into  the  proper  form  and  dried. 
Serviceable  baskets  and  crates  are  made  in  this  way 
at  a  very  low  cost. 

Some  kinds  of  woven  baskets  are  made  from  wil- 
low twigs  and  others  from  rattan.  Rattan  is  a 
climbing  vine  which  is  abundant  in  the  Philippine 
Islands.  These  vines  often  grow  to  be  over  a  hun- 
dred feet  in  length.  In  the  factories  the  long  rattan 
canes  are  placed  in  a  trough  of  water  and  soaked. 
Each  strand  in  turn  is  drawn  through  a  series  of 


BASKETS  AND  BOXES 


small  knives  that  strip  off  the  outer  bark  in  ribbons 
which  are  used  for  caning  the  seats  of  chairs.  The 
strands  are  then  drawn  through  a  second  set  of 
knives  which  cut  out 
flat  strips  of  reed 
winding  usually  one 
quarter  of  an  inch 
wide.  The  round 
reed  of  commerce  is 
obtained  from  the 
center  of  the  rattan 
strand.  Round  reed 
is  graded  in  sizes 
by  numbers  ranging 
from  oo  (very  fine)  to 
9  (heavy) .  The  larg- 
est strands  are  cut 
lengthwise  into  thin  slices  called  flats  which  are 
used  in  weaving  rectangular  baskets. 

THE  MAKING  OF  A  WOVEN  BASKET 

Let  us  make  a  design  for  a  small  basket  to  be 
made  of  rattan.  We  shall  make  a  silhouette  or 
outline  pattern  by  folding  and  cutting  a  piece 
of  paper.  This  outline  is  transferred  to  a  sheet 
of  drawing  paper. 

In  the  weaving  of  rattan  baskets  the  reeds 
which  form  the  skeleton  framework  are  called 
spokes,  while  those  which  pass  in  and  out,  thus 
filling  in  between  the  spokes,  are  called  the  weavers. 


Books  are  often  packed  in  corrugated 
paper. 


72        ELEMENTARY  INDUSTRIAL  ARTS 

Rattan  should  always  be  moistened  before  it 
is  used,  but  it  should  never  be  put  into  hot  water 
and  should  not  be  soaked  for  more  than  half  an 
hour.  The  reeds  to  be  used  as  spokes  should  be  cut 

to  the  proper 
lengths  and  tied 
together  in  bun- 
dles before  wet- 
ting; those  to  be 
used  as  weavers 
should  be  coiled 
and  tied  before 
being  wet.  The 
worker  should 
keep  his  fingers 
moist  by  dipping 
them  occasionally 
into  water. 

In  making  a 
rattan  basket 
from  five  to  eight 
inches  in  diame- 
ter, it  is  advisable 

to  use  No.  4  rattan  for  the  spokes  and  No.  2 
rattan  for  the  weavers.  The  basket  maker  takes 
four  spokes  in  each  hand,  and,  pressing  these  flat 
so  that  they  lie  beside  one  another,  he  places  the 
four  spokes  held  in  the  right  hand  upon  the  four 
held  in  the  left  hand.  The  groups  of  four  reeds 
each  are  now  made  to  cross  each  other  at  right 


Corrugated  paper  will  withstand  a 
heavy  blow. 


Margaret  Shepard 


THE  BASKET  MAKER 


74        ELEMENTARY  INDUSTRIAL  ARTS 

angles,  the  point  of  intersection  being  midway 
from  end  to  end  on  each  group  of  reeds.  A 
half-length  spoke  is  now  placed  beside  one  group 
of  four  and  the  weaving  is  begun,  the  weaver 
proceeding  over  and  under  each  of  the  four  groups 
of  spokes  in  turn,  until  all  the  spokes  are  held  se- 
curely in  place.  The  spokes  are  now  separated,  and 
the  weaver  is  passed  over  and  under  each  spoke 
in  turn. 

When  the  start  has  reached  a  diameter  of  five  or 
six  inches  a  new  spoke  is  inserted  beside  each  of 
those  already  in  position  except  the  last.  This 
makes  thirty- three  spokes  in  all.  The  weaving 
of  the  basket  is  carried  on  to  completion.  If  the 
sides  of  the  basket  are  to  turn  up  abruptly  the 
spokes  will  have  to  be  bent.  They  may  be  tied 
together  at  their  ends  to  keep  them  bent  until 
the  turn  is  made.  To  finish  the  rim,  bring  each 
spoke  around  the  two  following  it  and  into  the 
basket,  moistening  the  reeds,  pulling  them  into 
place,  and  pressing  them  tightly  down  upon  the 
basket. 

Teacher's  Note:  A  large  diagram  placed  upon  the  blackboard  to 
illustrate  the  method  of  starting  the  basket  will  be  found  helpful  in 
teaching  the  operations  of  construction.  The  instructor  may  also 
start  a  basket  before  the  class. 

I 

THE  MAKING  OF  A  BASKET  OVER  A  FORM 
By  means  of  forms,  baskets  may  be  made  in 
a  much  shorter  time  than   by   the  old   method. 


txvo   qcoups  of  four  reeds 
made  to  cross  ea.ch.  other 


spokes  Held  securelu  in  -    , 

place  bu  weavec     '  spokes  separated  and  weaver- 

passed  over  and  under  each, 
spoke  -  new  spoke  inserted  be- 
side each,  spoke,  in  position, 
except,  the  Last  andweavmq 
ConU.n.u.e,cL 

The 

Finish,  of  rim,  bnn.q  eacK  spoke,  Mclk  110.0      oP    3. 

around  tke  two  folLowtnq  it  and        \\,    ,-™    R--L,    i. 
into  tke,  basket  Woven  basket 


76        ELEMENTARY  INDUSTRIAL  ARTS 

Forms  are  often  used  by  the  craftsman  basket 
maker.  They  make  the  work  of  weaving  easier 
and  they  enable  the  craftsman  to  produce  baskets 
which  are  symmetrical. 

The  forms  are  made  by  using  two  circular  discs 
of  y%  inch  white  pine  stock.  The  disc  used  at 
the  top  of  the  form  is  10  inches  in  diameter,  with 
a  circular  opening  6  inches  in  diameter  through 
which  the  arm  of  the  worker  may  be  inserted. 
The  diameter  of  the  disc  at  the  bottom  of  the  form 
is  9  inches,  I  inch  smaller  than  that  of  the  one 
at  the  top,  so  that  the  form  may  taper  to  allow 
clearance  for  removing  the  finished  basket. 
A  Vie  inch  hole  is  bored  through  the  center  of 
the  smaller  disc  to  admit  a  ^4  inch  bolt  which 
is  used  in  connection  with  a  wooden  block,  through 
the  center  of  which  has  been  bored  a  hole  of  the 
same  size,  to  hold  the  spokes  tightly  against 
the  bottom  of  the  form  while  the  weaving  goes 
on.  Two  of  these  forms  are  shown  in  the  illus- 
tration at  the  beginning  of  this  chapter.  The  slats 
used  to  connect  the  two  discs  are  made  from 
3/&  inch  white  pine,  \]/2  inches  wide  and  14  inches 
long.  The  slats  are  nailed  at  their  ends  to  the 
edges  of  the  discs.  The  brads  used  are  set  y&  inch 
below  the  surface  of  the  slat  and  the  entire  form 
is  then  planed  to  roundness. 

As  soon  as  the  spokes  are  cut  to  length,  which 
in  the  case  illustrated  is  3  feet,  9  inches,  the  basket 
bottom  is  started  in  the  hands  by  the  customary 


BASKETS  AND  BOXES 


77 


method  of  crossing  the  spokes.    The  weaving  now 
progresses  rapidly. 

As  soon  as  the  start  for  the  bottom  of  the  basket 
has  reached  a  dia- 
meter of  about 
six  inches,  it  is 
fastened  to  the 
form,  the  bolt 
being  inserted 
first  through  the 
wooden  block 
then  through  the 
center  of  the  start 
and  on  through 
the  center  of  the 
disc.  The  nut  is 
screwed  on  the 
bolt  from  the  in- 
side, the  arm  of 
the  worker  being 
inserted  through 
the  opening  in  the 
large  disc.  Just 
before  the  long 
spokes  are  turned  up  to  form  the  sides  of  the 
basket,  an  additional  spoke  is  inserted  beside 
each  of  those  already  in  place.  No.  7  reed  is  used 
for  the  spokes,  No.  4  for  the  weavers.  Beautiful 
baskets  may  also  be  made  from  willow  and  hemp 
rope,  the  willow  furnishing  the  spokes. 


A  table  built  on  a  saw  horse  holds  the  form 
over  which  this  boy  is  weaving. 


78        ELEMENTARY  INDUSTRIAL  ARTS 

II 
THE  MAKING  OF  A  SEWED  BASKET 

We  shall  first  make  a  design  by  folding  and 
cutting  paper  as  we  did  in  making  our  design 
for  the  rattan  basket.  We  should  transfer  the 
silhouette  to  another  sheet  of  paper  and  make  a 
decorative  design  with  crayons  or  water  color 
paints.  We  shall  refer  to  Indian  baskets  or  illustra- 
tions for  suggestions. 

In  making  a  basket  from  rattan  and  raffia  it  is 
possible  to  employ  one  of  several  satisfactory 
stitches.  The  one  which  makes  the  firmest  basket 
is  the  stitch  known  as  figure-of-eight,  so  named 
because  the  raffia  forms  this  figure  as  it  passes 
in  and  out  in  the  process  of  sewing.  The  basket 
is  formed  by  coiling  a  piece  of  rattan,  covering 
it  with  raffia,  and  at  the  same  time  sewing  it  to 
itself  as  the  process  of  coiling  progresses.  The 
extreme  end  of  the  rattan,  which  has  been  thor- 
oughly soaked,  is  first  bent  to  the  form  of  a  hook. 
Then  the  raffia  is  wrapped  about  this  hook  and 
the  coiling-sewing  process  begins.  A  fine  tapestry 
needle  (a  large  needle  with  a  blunt  point)  is  gen- 
erally used  for  the  sewing,  and  the  raffia  is  split  in 
order  that  the  sewing  may  be  facilitated.  The  raffia 
is  used  best  when  dry.  The  figure-of-eight  is  simply 
an  over-and-under  stitch,  the  progress  of  the  needle 
being,  (i)  between  reeds  and  into  basket,  (2) 
around  outside  reed  and  into  basket,  (3)  around 


BASKETS  AND  BOXES 


79 


inside  reed  and  out  of  basket;  and  repeat.  As  we 
work  let  us  read  about  the  Indians,  who  still 
make  beautiful  baskets.  (See  poem  at  the  end  of 
this  chapter;  also  Suggested  Reading.) 


©  formxncf  oFcoil 
beqinmnq  of 
^basket 


Making  a 
Sewed  Basket 


in 
THE  MAKING  OF  A  PADDED  Box  WITH  COVER 

The  box  will  be  cylindric  in  form,  4  inches  in 
diameter  and  3  inches  high.  It  will  be  desirable  to 
make  a  design  before  attempting  to  construct 
the  box. 

Let  us  make  a  drawing  of  the  front  and  top 
views  of  the  box  as  it  will  be  when  finished.  We 
shall  place  the  top  view  directly  over  the  front  view. 
What  will  be  the  shape  of  the  front  view?  The 
top  view?  Let  us  use  our  compasses  and  rulers  and 
make  accurate  full-size  drawings.  When  these  have 
been  completed  the  decoration  must  be  planned. 


8o        ELEMENTARY  INDUSTRIAL  ARTS 

Upon  the  top  view  of  the  box  arrange  a  border  to 
emphasize  the  shape  of  the  cover.  The  motif  may 
be  a  small  flower  and  bud  or  an  interesting  spot  to 
be  alternated  with  one  of  a  different  shape  and 
size.  The  units  should  be  carefully  placed  between 
the  border  lines  and  should  be  carefully  spaced  so 
as  to  appear  to  be  placed  just  the  right  distance 
apart.  The  colors  used  should  be  harmonious. 
Let  us  try  a  complementary  scheme,  which  may 
include  any  of  the  following  combinations: 
blue  and  yellow-red  (orange),  green  and  red- 
purple,  yellow  and  purple-blue,  red  and  blue- 
green,  or  purple  and  yellow-green. 

In  making  the  box,  observe  the  following  direc- 
tions : 

(1)  Provide    yourself    with    a    piece    of    heavy 
cardboard    large   enough    to   supply   two   4   inch 
circles  for  cover  and  bottom. 

(2)  Draw  these  circles  with  compasses,  and  then 
cut  them  out. 

(3)  Provide   yourself   with    a    piece    of    cotton 
sheet   wadding   sufficiently   large   to   supply   two 
5  inch  circles  and  two  3^  inch  circles  for  padding 
cover  and  bottom. 

(4)  Mark  these  circles  and  cut  them  out. 

(5)  Place  one  of  the  cardboard  circles  on  one 
of  the  larger  circles  of  wadding.    Let  the  wadding 
project  equally  all  the  way  around.     How  wide 
will  this  strip  of  wadding  be? 

(6)  Cover  the  cardboard   disc   by  folding   the 


tuuo  circu.lar  pieces  of 
cardboard.,  4-  diameter 


smaller  circle.  oF 
wadding  sewed 
to  Gdqes  of  large 
curcta.  or  w 


qalatea.  dotk  cot 
and  sewed  over 
circular  card 
covttre.d  with. 
wadd\.ruq" 


•4i  qalatea  cvrcle, 
xuxth.  i "  Kcm.  turnai 
under,  sewed  to 
padded,  dusk. 


piece  oP  stiff  paper  9"x  14-"  folded  bo  form, 
a  strx.p    3"x  I4-- 


bring  tu>o  ends  of 
strtp  together 


cardboard  cxjlxnder,  edqes          5x  !4-"coverinq 
tu.rned.  VR  and  neld.  bvj  thread       UMdcUncp 


sew  pxeca  ofqalatea. 
cloth.  4'x  14:  turn.i.ng 
tn.  t'ort  loruq  odqes 
to  iruside.  or  .box 
formi.njq  ununq" 


fasten  bottom  bt,    make.  Kinge.  for  TtU2  makmq  ,ofa  padded 
sewinq  all  round      cover  T"  wide-  DOX  \Vltn.  CO  VOX" 


82        ELEMENTARY  INDUSTRIAL  ARTS 

wadding  over  it  at  its  edge,  entirely  around.  It 
will  not  stay  folded,  of  course.  It  will  have  to 
be  fastened  with  thread. 

(7)  Take  needle  and  thread  and  sew  from  one 
edge  of  the  wadding  to  the  edge  of  the  wadding 
at  the  opposite  side  of  the  cardboard  disc,  crossing 
the   stitches   each    time,  arranging   your   stitches 
like  the  spokes  in  a  wheel. 

(8)  When  you  have  sewed  all  the  way  around 
fasten    the    threads    by    sewing    over    and    over. 
Then  cut  the  thread. 

(9)  Take  one  of  the  smaller  circles  of  wadding 
(3#j  inches  in  diameter)  and  sew  its  edges  to  those 
of  the  larger  circle  of  wadding  which  has  been 
fastened  in  place.     Both  sides  of  the  cardboard 
circle  are  now  entirely  covered. 

(10)  Cover  the  other  cardboard   circle  in   the 
same  way. 

(n)  Provide  yourself  with  a  piece  of  brown 
galatea  cloth,  or  other  suitable  material,  for  cover- 
ing the  two  padded  discs.  The  four  circles  cut  from 
the  galatea  must  have  diameters  of  5  inches  and 
4^  inches  respectively.  How  large  a  piece  of  gala- 
tea  will  it  take  to  furnish  two  circles  of  the  smaller 
size  and  two  of  the  larger  size?  Prepare  the  piece  of 
galatea. 

(12)  Cover  one  of  the  padded  discs  by  sewing 
the  5  inch  galatea  circle  over  the  disc  just  as  the 
wadding  was  sewed  before.  The  5  inch  galatea  circle 
is  placed  over  the  3^  inch  wadding  circle,  as  this 


BASKETS  AND  BOXES  83 

will  give  a  better  appearance  to  the  finished  work. 

(13)  Take  the  4^"  inch  galatea  circle  and  turn 
under  a  hem  }4  inch  in  width. 

(14)  Sew    this    circle    in    place,    thus   entirely 
covering  the  padded  disc  with  galatea. 

(15)  Transfer    your    decorative    design    to    the 
other  5   inch  circle  of  galatea  by  tracing.     Use 
carbon  paper  placed  face  down  upon  the  cloth. 
If  you  wish  to  preserve  the  original  design,   use 
transparent  paper  in  making  the  drawing  to  be 
used  over  the  carbon  paper. 

(16)  Embroider  the  design  with  silk  floss.     An 
outline  stitch  or  other  simple  stitch  will  be  used. 
If  you  prefer  you  may  stencil  the  design,  using 
a  brush  and  dyes. 

(17)  When  the  decoration  is  finished,  cover  the 
second  padded  circle  with  galatea.     Both  circles 
are  now  entirely  finished. 

(18)  Prepare  a  piece  of  stiff  paper,  9  inches  by 
14  inches,  for  the  sides. 

(19)  Place  this  paper  horizontally  and  measure 
down  on  each  of  its  short  edges  3  inches  and  6 
inches  respectively,  and  place  points. 

(20)  Connect  the  two  points  which  are  3  inches 
from  the  upper  edge  by  drawing  a  pencil  line. 

(21)  Connect  the  two  points  which  are  6  inches 
from  the  upper  edge. 

(22)  Fold   the  edge  of  the  paper  nearest  you 
to  the  pencil  line  farthest  from  you  and  crease. 

(23)  Fold   the  edge   farthest  from  you   to  the 


84        ELEMENTARY  INDUSTRIAL  ARTS 

crease  that  you  have  just  made,  thus  making 
the  folded  paper  into  a  strip  14  inches  long  com- 
posed of  three  thicknesses  of  the  paper. 

(24)  Bring  the  two  ends  of  this  strip  together 
lapping  them  X  mcn  and  sew  them  together  with 
needle  and  thread.    This  makes  a  hollow  cylinder 
practically  13  inches  in  circumference  and  just  4 
inches  across. 

(25)  Prepare  a  strip  of  wadding  5  inches  wide 
and  14  inches  long. 

(26)  Lay   the  wadding   on   the   desk   and   roll 
the  hollow  cylinder  over  it  so  that  an  equal  amount 
(one  inch)  of  the  wadding  projects  at  either  edge. 

(27)  Bring  the  ends  of  the  wadding  together, 
tightly  lapping  and  sewing  them. 

(28)  Crease  the  wadding  over  the  edges  of  the  stiff 
paper,  bringing  its  edges  on  the  inside  of  the  box. 

(29)  Using   needle   and   thread,    catch  the  two 
edges    of    the   wadding   and    pull    them   securely 
in  place  on  the  inside  of  the  box  so  that  the  wadding 
is  perfectly  smooth  on  the  outside. 

(30)  Prepare  a   strip   of   the  galatea  5   inches 
wide  and  14^2  inches  long. 

(31)  Put  this  on  just  as  you  did  the  strip  of 
wadding  being  careful    to  make  a  neat    lap  by 
turning  under  the  extreme  edge  of  the  outside 
end  of  the  material. 

(32)  Prepare  a  second  strip  of  galatea  4  inches 
by  14  inches  to  serve  as  a  lining  for  the  sides  of 
the  box. 


BASKETS  AND  BOXES  85 

(33)  Turn  the  long  edges  over  ^  inch,  making 
the  finished  strip  but  3  inches  wide. 

(34)  Place  this  on  the  inside  of  the  box,  with 
the  half  inch  hems  next  to  the  side  of  the  box. 

(35)  Sew  the  creased  edges  to  the  edges  of  the 
covered  sides  of  the  box  and  fasten  the  loose  end 
of  the  strip  down,  turning  the  edge  under  as  it 
is  sewed  in  place. 

(36)  Fasten  the  bottom  of  the  box  on  by  sewing 
over  and  over  all  the  way  around.     Take  small 
regular  stitches. 

(37)  Make   a   hinge   for   the   cover   by  sewing 
the  edge  of  the  box  to  the  edge  of  the  cover.    The 
hinge   should   be   about   half   an   inch   wide.      It 
is  best  to  place  it  where  the  covering  material 
has  been  lapped. 


THE  BASKET  WEAVER 

No  flashing  loom  is  hers;  no  shuttle  flies 
To  do  the  bidding  of  her  hands  and  eyes. 
No  needle  glides  to  designated  place, 
As  weave  her  sisters  overseas  the  lace. 
Hers  is  a  simpler  workshop  in  the  leaves ; 
This  is  a  simpler  pattern  that  she  weaves, 
Her  woof  the  splinter  of  the  forest  tree, 
The  ash  so  white,  the  elm  and  hickory, 
Her  dyes  the  blood  of  marish  weeds  and  bark 
With  tints  as  ruddy  as  her  features  dark — 
These  are  her  simple  implements  of  toil, 
The  ready  products  of  the  woodland  soil. 


86        ELEMENTARY  INDUSTRIAL  ARTS 

Yet  who  shall  say  her  skill  is  aught  the  less 

Than  that  of  her  who  weaves  the  princess'  dress? 

For  generations  women  of  her  race 

Have  woven  baskets  in  this  quiet  place, 

And  she  who  weaves  beneath  the  ancient  trees 

Reveals  the  skill  of  toilsome  centuries. 

So,  through  its  time,  the  basket  that  she  makes 
Shall  sing  to  me  of  brooks  and  sylvan  lakes, 
Shall  sing  the  glory  of  the  vanished  Red, 
Shall  sing  a  requiem  for  peoples  dead, 
Shall  sing  of  tree,  of  flower  and  of  sod — 
Shall  sing  of  Nature  and  the  place  of  God. 

DOUGLAS  MALLOCK. 
From  "In  Forest  Land."  The  American  Lumberman,  Chicago,  1906 


EXERCISES  FOR  STUDY  AND  REVIEW 

(1)  Which  food  products  usually  come  from  the  store 
in  paper  boxes?    Why  are  these  products  packed  in  boxes? 

(2)  Bring   some   small   paper   boxes   to   school.      Make 
a  careful  pencil  drawing  of  one  of  these. 

(3)  What  is  corrugated  paper?    Make  a  sketch  to  show 
its  construction. 

(4)  What  advantages   for  use  have  corrugated   paper 
boxes  over  wooden  boxes? 

(5)  Why    is    reed    used    in    the    making  of   furniture  ? 
In  the  making  of  baby  carriages? 

(6)  What  advantage  has  rattan  over  willow  as  a  basket 
weaving  material? 

(7)  "The  Basket  Maker",  from  a  painting  by  Margaret 
Shepard,   shows  a  Hopi   Indian  making  a  sewed  basket. 
Write  a  short  story  of  Indian  life  for  which  this  half-tone 
reproduction  might  be  used  as  an  illustration. 

(8)  Why  are  most  candy  boxes  shallow  and  most  cereal 
boxes  deep? 


BASKETS  AND  BOXES  87 

(9)  What  are  some  of  the  qualities  that  a  maker  of 
paper  boxes  should  possess?    How  much  can  a  beginner 
earn  in  a  day?   In  a  week?  How  much  can  an  expert  earn? 

(10)  How  are  wooden  berry  boxes  made? 

(n)    Make  a  pencil  box  from  heavy  construction  paper. 
Work  out  your  plan  first  on  manila  paper. 


SUGGESTED   READING  ABOUT    THE  MAKING  OF  BASKETS 
AND  BOXES 

Bush  and  Bush. — Industrial  and  Applied  Art  Books,  V, 

VI,  VII,  VIII.    Atkinson,  Mentzer  &  Company. 
Buxton  and  Curran. — Paper  and   Cardboard   Construction 

(See  Boxes}.    Manual  Arts  Press. 
Eppendorff. — Handwork  Construction  (See  Basket  Making). 

Pratt  Institute. 
Glauflin.— Handicraft  for    Girls  (Chapter  XII,  Basketry}. 

Manual  Arts  Press. 
Holton  and  Rollins. — Industrial  Work  for  Public  Schools. 

(Raffia  and  Reed   Baskets).      Rand  McNally  &  Com- 
pany. 
James. — Indian    Basketry    and    How    to    Make    Baskets. 

Malkan. 
Moseley. — Trees,  Stars  and  Birds   (Index  under  Baskets). 

World  Book  Company. 
Rodgers   and    Others. — Trade    Foundations   (Index  under 

Paper  Box  Making).    G.  M.  Jones,  Indianapolis. 
Snow  and  Froehlich.— Industrial  Art  Text  Books,  V,  VI r 

VII,  VIII.    The  Prang  Company. 

Talbot.— How  to  Make  Baskets.     Doubleday,  Page  &  Co. 
Toothaker. — Commercial  Raw  Materials.    Ginn  &  Co. 
Turner. — The  Basket  Maker.    Atkinson,  Mentzer  &  Co. 
White. — How  to  Make  Baskets.     Doubleday,  Page  &  Co. 
More  Baskets  and  How  to  Make  Them.    Double- 
day,  Page  &  Co. 


ig  Cars  with  Shale 


IV 
BRICK  AND  TILE 

A  brick  is  a  molded  rock-like  product  which  has 
been  formed  into  a  shape  convenient  for  use  in 
building  walls.  The  making  of  our  native  clay  brick 
is  confined  to  those  localities  where  material 
suitable  for  its  manufacture  is  found.  For  this 
reason  the  industry  is  not  evenly  distributed  over 
the  United  States.  Pennsylvania  ranks  first  in 
the  production  of  brick  and  tile;  and  Ohio,  Illinois, 
New  York,  and  New  Jersey,  follow  in  the  order 
named. 

That  brick  and  tile  are  permanent  as  building 
materials  is  demonstrated  by  the  excellent  con- 
dition in  which  we  find  many  of  the  ancient 
brick  buildings  of  Europe.  Old  bricks  found  at 
Bismaya,  in  the  valley  of  the  Euphrates  River  in 
Asia,  are  still  in  almost  as  good  condition  as  they 
were  when  the  buildings  were  constructed  forty- 
five  hundred  years  ago.  Brick  is  the  oldest 
artificial  building  material.  From  the  earliest 


BRICK  AND  TILE  89 

times  the  inhabitants  of  Samaria,  Chaldea,  and 
Egypt  built  houses  of  adobe,  which  is  sun-dried 
brick.  We  find  that  the  kings  of  Chaldea  and 
the  Pharaohs  of  Egypt  lived  in  brick  houses, 
and  that  King  Nebuchadnezzar  of  Babylon  built 


Hollow  Tile,  Drain  Tile,  and  Paving  Bricks 

his  palaces  and  temples  of  brick.  Brick  can 
lay  claim  to  an  extensive  use  in  medieval  times. 
It  was  during  the  thirteenth  century  that  the 
industry  as  we  know  it  to-day  began  to  flourish 
in  the  north  of  Europe. 

The  western  world  too  can  boast  of  its  ancient 
brick  remains.  When  the  Spaniards  came  to 
America  they  were  surprised  to  find  among  the 
Incas  and  Aztecs  buildings  and  monuments  made 
of  brick.  In  the  early  days  of  the  thirteen  col- 
onies, small  amounts  of  brick  were  imported; 
some  were  probably  brought  in  the  bottoms  of 


90        ELEMENTARY  INDUSTRIAL  ARTS 

ships  as  ballast.  Many  of  the  first  brick  houses 
erected  in  America  were  built  of  bricks  imported 
from  European  countries. 

The  beginnings  of  the  clay  working  industries 
in  the  United  States  are  given  by  one  authority 
as  follows:  Virginia,  1611;  Massachusetts  and 
New  York,  1629;  Maine,  1635;  North  Carolina, 
1663;  Rhode  Island,  1680;  and  Pennsylvania, 
1683. 

The  varieties  of  brick  and  tile  made  to-day  are 
numerous.     The  most  important  are: 
Brick  Tile 

1.  Common  I.    Drain 

2.  Face  2.    Sewer 

3.  Paving  3.    Roofing 

4.  Enamel  4.    Decorative 

5.  Fire  5.    Building  (hollow  tile) 
The  manufacturing  processes  used  in  the  pro- 
duction  of   handmade   bricks   may   be   separated 
into  two  main  divisions:  (i)   Preparation  of  the 
clay,   which   involves   the  operations  of  washing, 
tempering,    and   pugging,    and    (2)    the   formation 
of   the   bricks   from   the   washed,    tempered,    and 
pugged    clay,    which    involves    the    operations   of 
molding,  drying,  and  firing. 

The  purpose  of  the  washing  is  to  separate 
stones  and  other  foreign  matter  from  the  clay. 
It  is  done  in  a  wash  mill  which  consists  of  a  large 
tank,  about  fourteen  feet  in  diameter,  in  which 
a  set  of  paddles  revolves  at  the  rate  of  nine  or  ten 


BRICK  AND  TILE  91 

revolutions  a  minute.  This  churning  causes  the 
clay  to  be  mixed  with  the  water  forming  a  slip 
(clay  and  water  in  a  liquid  state),  which  is  allowed 
to  run  off  while  the  stones  sink  to  the  bottom. 
From  twenty  to  forty  cubic  yards  of  the  material 
can  be  thus  washed  by  one  wash  mill  in  a  day. 


Cars  Leaded  with  Shale  Going  up  Incline  to  Dry  Shed 

Sometimes  the  clay  is  obtained  in  the  form 
of  shale  or  is  hard  and  lumpy  so  that  it  has  to 
be  dried  and  crushed  before  it  is  mixed  with  water. 
Crushing  is  accomplished  in  a  drypan  or  pan  mill 
equipped  with  edge  rollers.  The  pan  mill  consists  of 
a  circular  iron  pan,  six  to  eight  feet  in  diameter 
and  perhaps  one  foot  deep,  in  which  a  pair  of 
heavy  wide  wheels  are  caused  to  roll.  These 
wheels  or  rollers  move  in  a  circle  just  inside  the 


92        ELEMENTARY  INDUSTRIAL  ARTS 

edge  of  the  circular  pan.  The  wheels  are  called 
edge  rollers  because  they  have  a  narrow  tread 
which  provides  a  cutting  action  in  crushing 
shale  which  is  ground  while  dry.  Much  grinding 
and  crushing  is  often  avoided  by  exposing  the  clay 
to  the  action  of  the  weather  for  a  considerable 


Feeding  a  Drypan 

length   of  time  before  any  attempt  is   made   to 
work  it. 

After  the  clay  has  been  washed  it  is  tempered. 
Tempering  consists  in  mixing  water  with  the 
clay  and  working  the  two  together  until  a  paste 
of  fairly  uniform  consistency  is  formed.  The 
best  results  are  obtained  when  the  clay  is  tem- 
pered for  two  days  before  it  is  pugged. 


BRICK  AND  TILE  93 

Pugging  is  a  further  process  of  mixing  which 
is  employed  to  reduce  the  clay  to  a  thoroughly 
plastic  mass.  This  operation  is  accomplished 
in  a  pug  mill,  which  consists  of  a  vertical  cylinder 
containing  a  shaft  to  which  knives  that  revolve 
are  attached.  The  tempered  clay,  having  been 
thrown  in  at  one  end  of  the  cylinder  is  cut  and 
mixed  by  the  knives  as  it  works  its  way  down 
through  to  the  lower  end.  The  pugged  clay  is 
finally  discharged  ready  for  molding. 

Two  methods  of  molding  bricks  by  hand  are 
now  in  use:  slop  molding  and  sand  molding. 
In  slop  molding,  the  workman  makes  a  lump 
of  clay  approximately  the  size  and  shape  of  a 
brick  and  dashes  it  into  a  wooden  mold,  which 
has  been  first  dipped  into  water  so  that  its  inside 
is  wet.  He  then  presses  the  clay  into  the  mold 
and  fills  it  completely,  using  a  rammer  called  a 
plane.  The  plane  is  a  small  flat  board  with  a 
handle.  The  clay  not  needed  is  removed  and 
an  even  surface  is  produced  by  drawing  a  straight 
edged  strip  of  wood,  called  a  strike,  across  the 
top  of  the  mold.  The  contents  of  the  mold  are 
now  turned  out  on  the  drying  floor. 

Sand  molding  is  quite  similar  to  slop  molding, 
except  that  in  sand  molding  the  mold  is  dipped 
into  damp  sand  instead  of  water,  so  that  a  coat- 
ing of  sand  is  deposited  on  its  inside.  The  pur- 
pose of  the  dipping,  in  both  cases,  is  to  prevent 
the  clay  from  sticking  to  the  mold. 


Gerrit  A.  Beneker,  © 


Hydraulic  Steel  Co. 


MEN  ARE  SQUARE 


BRICK  AND  TILE 


95 


Machine  molding  is  rapidly  replacing  hand 
molding.  In  molding  by  machine,  the  clay  is 
placed  in  a  large  cylindric  tank  into  one  end  of 
which  a  piston  is  forced  which  causes  the  clay 
to  be  squeezed  out  at  the  other  end  through  a 
rectangular  opening  which  is  exactly  the  same 


Photo  by  Beitt 


Making  Wire-cut  Bricks  by  Machine 


size  and  shape  as  the  largest  face  of  one  of  the 
bricks  to  be  made.  The  clay  comes  out  in  the  form 
of  a  continuous  bar  which  is  deposited  on  the  cut- 
ting table.  Here  a  frame,  carrying  a  number  of 
wires  spaced  just  as  far  apart  as  the  thickness  of 
the  brick,  is  drawn  down  on  the  bar  of  clay,  and  the 
wires  passing  through  it  cut  it  into  bricks.  Bricks 
manufactured  bv  this  method  are  called  wire-cut 
bricks. 


96        ELEMENTARY  INDUSTRIAL  ARTS 

The  bricks  must  be  thoroughly  dried  before 
being  baked  or  fired,  because  the  moisture  con- 
tained in  them  would  otherwise  produce  steam 
which  would  cause  them  to  explode  when  heated. 
They  are  first  placed  in  racks  for  drying,  one 
tier  above  another,  and  are  set  on  edge  in  rows 
and  spaced  about  five  inches  apart  in  order  that 
the  air  may  circulate  around  them.  The  racks 
are  covered  with  an  improvised  roof  of  rough 
boards  to  protect  the  bricks  from  rain.  Some- 
times the  racks  are*  enclosed  in  carefully  built 
sheds.  When  the  bricks  have  dried  sufficiently 
to  be  handled,  they  are  skintled,  or  set  still  farther 
apart  and  placed  diagonally  to  allow  the  air  to 
pass  between  them  more  freely. 

When  thoroughly  dried,  the  bricks  are  fired 
in  a  clamp  or  in  a  kiln  (the  more  modern  way). 
A  clamp  is  formed  by  piling  the  bricks  so  that  there 
are  passages  in  which  the  fuel  is  placed.  Large 
passages  extending  through  to  the  outside  are 
left  to  serve  as  flues.  The  fuel  consists  of  cinders 
or  of  coke  distributed  in  the  interior  passages. 
The  flues  are  filled  with  fagots  which  are  lighted 
from  the  outside  and  which  soon  ignite  the  coke. 
The  fagots  are  kept  burning  for  a  day  or  so  and 
are  then  removed  and  the  mouths  of  the  flues 
stopped  with  additional  bricks  plastered 
over  with  clay.  The  clamp  is  allowed  to  burn 
until  all  the  fuel  has  been  consumed.  This 
usually  takes  from  three  to  six  weeks.  The 


BRICK  AND  TILE  97 

clamps  are  then  torn  down,  and  the  bricks  sorted 
and  piled  ready  for  shipment. 

A  modern  brick  kiln  is  a  large  oven-like  struc- 
ture with  an  arched  roof  and  a  tall  stack  for 
creating  the  necessary  draft.  It  is  built  of 
brick  and  is  lined  with  fire  brick.  (Fire  brick  is 


A  Modern  Rectangular  Brick  Kiln 

made  from  new  clay  mixed  with  grog,  clay  which 
has  been  fired  and  ground.)  The  bricks  to  be 
fired  are  piled  in  the  kiln  chamber  in  such  a  way 
that  the  burning  gases  from  the  fire  may  circulate 
between  them.  A  fire  box  is  located  under  the 
kiln  chamber.  The  fuel  used  is  generally  bitu- 
minous or  soft  coal,  which  when  burned  sets 
free  a  gas  that  is  itself  burned  within  the  cham- 
ber. Two  kinds  of  kilns  are  used:  the  up-draft 
and  down-draft  types.  In  the  up-draft  kiln  the 


98        ELEMENTARY  INDUSTRIAL  ARTS 

flames  are  allowed  to  pass  directly  up  through 
the  bricks  from  the  bottom  to  the  top  of  the 
kiln,  while  in  the  down-draft  kiln,  the  flame 
does  not  come  in  contact  with  the  bricks  until 
it  has  reached  the  top  when  it  pours  down  through 
the  bricks  to  the  flues.  A  temperature  of  1,200 
degrees  Fahrenheit  is  maintained  in  the  kiln. 

Roofing  tiles  are  usually  made  from  a  high 
grade  of  red  clay.  As  it  is  necessary  that  these 
tiles  be  nonporous,  they  are  fired  at  a  higher 
temperature  than  are  the  common  red  bricks. 

MAKING  BRICKS  AND  BUILDING  A  TOY  HOUSE 

Make  little  bricks  from  clay.  Use  clay  from 
nearby  fields  if  you  are  able  to  find  some.  From 
these  bricks  construct  a  small  house. 

The  house  is  to  be  built  with  solid  side  walls, 
windows  and  doors  in  front  and  back,  and  a  sloping 
flat  roof.  It  is  to  be  rectangular  in  plan,  and  one 
side  may  be  left  open. 

Teacher's  Note:  The  class  should  be  divided  into  groups,  each  group 
being  held  responsible  for  a  particular  part  of  the  work,  yet  enough 
freedom  should  be  permitted  so  that  each  pupil  benefits  by  the  others' 
work.  The  spirit  of  competition  will  be  conducive  to  better  effort. 
The  following  groups  are  suggested:  I.  Clay  diggers  and  mixers.  2. 
Molders.  3.  Driers  and  firers.  4.  Masons.  5.  Carpenters. 

Plan  the  house  by  drawing  a  floor  plan.  Make 
your  plan  for  a  real  house  of  full  size  and  draw  it  to 
such  a  scale  that  %  inch  on  your  plan  represents 
i  foot  on  the  full  size  house.  Build  your  house  on 
the  scale  of  I  inch  to  a  foot.  This  means  that  every 


BRICK  AND  TILE  99 

dimension  which  would  be  I  foot  on  a  real  house 
will  be  I  inch  on  the  house  planned  by  you. 

The  building  of  the  house  should  be  done  outside 
the  school  house  if  possible,  and  here  the  real  work 
begins. 

1.  Work  of  clay  diggers  and  mixers:     Dig  the 
clay  (a  small  cart  load  will  be  sufficient  for  the 
whole    project).     Grind    and    mix   the    clay    in    a 
wooden  mixing  box  in  which  an  improvised  narrow 
tread  roller  may  be  run  back  and  forth.    Such  a 
roller  can  be  made  by  casting  a  concrete  wheel  and 
providing  it  with  a  suitable  handle  for  moving  it 
about,  or  a  discarded  iron  wheel  of  some  sort  may 
be  used.   The  mixing  box  for  the  clay  will  be  built 
by  the  carpenters  and  should   be  of  simple  con- 
struction.  Mix  the  clay  with  water  until  it  is  quite 
plastic. 

2.  Work  of  molders:    First  construct,  with  the 
aid  of  the  carpenters,  a  number  of  molds.  These 
may  be  either  unit  or  multiple  molds.    In  either 
case  they  should  provide  a  box  form  for  the  brick 
which  will  be  ]/2   inch  thick,   I   inch  wide  and  2 
inches  long.  The  bottom  should  be  removable,  and 
a  pusher  provided  just  the  size  and  shape  of  a 
brick.    By  means  of  this  the  clay  may  be  pushed 
from  the  mold.    Mold  the  bricks  by  pressing  the 
mold  full  of  clay,  packing  it  well  and  pushing  out 
the  newly  formed  brick.    Give  the  bricks  to  the 
driers  and  firers. 

3.  Work  of  driers  and  firers:   Take  the   bricks 


ioo      ELEMENTARY  INDUSTRIAL  ARTS 

from  the  molders,  spread  them  on  a  board  and 
allow  them  to  dry  in  the  sun.  Then  pile  them  in 
arch-like  piles,  preparatory  to  firing.  Build  fires 
under  and  around  the  arches  and  feed  the  fires 
until  the  bricks  have  been  properly  hardened.  It 
will  be  necessary  to  bring  them  to  a  red  heat  and  to 
keep  them  at  this  temperature  for  perhaps  an  hour. 
4.  Work  of  masons  and  5.  of  carpenters:  These 
groups  should  work  together.  Stake  off  the  area 
for  the  building.  Mix  cement  mortar.  (It  will  be 
best  to  use  portland  cement  only  for  this ;  for  while 
both  sand  and  cement  are  used  in  practical  work, 
it  will  be  found  difficult  to  get  satisfactory  results 
in  such  small  work  if  sand  is  used.)  A  mixture  of 
cement  and  water  is  known  as  neat  cement.  Lay 
the  bricks,  breaking  joints;  that  is,  arranging  them 
so  that  the  joints  on  the  second  layer  of  brick  are 
over  the  middle  of  the  bricks  below,  those  of  the 
third  layer  or  course  being  directly  over  the  middle 
of  the  bricks  in  the  second  course,  etc.  Avoid  using 
too  much  mortar.  Carpenters  will  make  the  win- 
dow frames  and  door  frames  (which  may  be  simple 
frames  of  the  sizes  desired).  Carpenters  will  help 
masons  set  the  frames  in  place.  The  first  floor  may 
be  left  a  dirt  (soil)  floor.  Make  the  second  floor  of 
a  single  board,  and  set  it  in  place  at  a  proper 
height  on  a  ledge  provided  by  laying  bricks  on  edge 
instead  of  flat  in  this  course,  thus  leaving  a  differ- 
ence in  the  thickness  of  the  wall  of  ^  inch,  which 
will  provide  the  proper  ledge  on  the  inside.  The 


BRICK  AND  TILE  101 

floor  board  should  be  approximately  I  inch  thick 
(the  same  as  the  height  of  this  course  of  bricks)  so 
that  the  next  course  may  be  laid  flat  and  will  rest 
on  the  brick  and  the  floor  board. 

Make  the  roof  of  a  solid  board  and  cover  with 
sanded  tar  paper. 

THE  BUILDER 

I  am  the  builder;  on  my  throne 

Of  iron  and  wood  and  steel  and  stone, 

I  stand  the  Builder,  but  not  alone:  — 

In  God's  own  image,  from  God's  own  plan, 

From  common  clay,  He  built  Me  —  Man. 

From  common  clay,  He  raised  the  ban, 

That  I  might  live  —  but  not  alone. 

From  God's  own  earth  I  scoop  the  ore, 

The  coal  I  mine,  the  rock  I  bore, 

The  lightning's  flash  from  the  air  I  stcre:  — 

This  clay  fuse  I  —  with  fire  to  mock 

The  Ancient  Gods;  their  temples  rock, 

Crash  back  to  earth;   tongues  interlock 

To  build  no  Babel  as  of  yore. 

Where  once  a  hillock  was  but  small 
I  build  the  city  towering  tall, 
The  peasants'  hut,  the  marble  hall:  — 
With  men  from  many  a  foreign  strand, 
I  build  with  heart  and  soul  and  hand 
America  —  The  promised  Land! 
Build  all  for  each,  build  each  for  all. 

GERRIT  A.  BENEKER 
This  poem  is  used  by  courtesy  of  the  author  and  of  The  Red  Cross  Magazine 


•TATI  TEACHE 

SANTA   BARBARA. 

I    I  O 


102      ELEMENTARY  INDUSTRIAL  ARTS 
EXERCISES  FOR  STUDY  AND  REVIEW 

(1)  Compare     the     modern     method     of     brickmaking 
with  that  followed  by  the  ancient  Egyptians  and  American 
Indians  who  used  adobe  in  building. 

(2)  What   kinds   of   bricks   are   best   for   building,    for 
paving  streets,  for  lining  tanks? 

(3)  Compare   brickmaking  with    pottery   making,  con- 
sidering the  quality  of  the  clay  used,  shaping  -the  product. 

(4)  How  do  porous  tiles  differ  from  nonporous  in  appear- 
ance, in  method  of  manufacture? 

(5)  "Men  Are  Square."    Give  your  opinion  of  the  work- 
man painted  by  Gerrit  Beneker. 

(6)  Should    drain  tile  (tile    used    in  draining    land)  be 
porous  or  nonporous?  Why? 

(7)  How  are  bricks  formed  by  machine? 

(8)  Why   should    newly   formed    bricks   be    thoroughly 
dried  before  firing? 

(9)  Draw  two  diagrams  to  show  the  difference  between 
the  up-draft  and  down-draft  types  of  brick  kilns. 

(10)  Is  bricklaying  a  skilled  trade?    Why  do  you  think 
so? 

(11)  If  you  were  to  build  a  house  of  common  red  brick 
what  color  would  you  have  the  shutters,  the  doors,  the 
veranda  posts  and  railings?   Why? 


SUGGESTED  READING  ABOUT  THE  MAKING  OF  BRICK 
AND  TILE 

Bishop   and   Keller. — Industry    and    Trade   (Index   under 

Clay  Industry}.    Ginn  &  Co. 

Brown. — Hand  Brickmaking.     Clayworker  Press,  London. 
Bush  and   Bush. — Industrial  and  Applied  Art  Books,  V, 

VI,  VII,  VIII.    Atkinson,  Mentzer,  and  Company. 


BRICK  AND  TILE  105 

Chamberlain.— How  We  Are  Sheltered  (Page  no).  The 
Macmillan  Company. 

Dobson. — Rudimentary  Treatise  on  the  Manufacture  of 
Brick  and  Tile.  Crosby  Lockwood,  London. 

Rodgers  and  Others. — Trade  Foundations  (Index  under 
Brick,  Bricklayer,  Brickmaking).  G.  M.  Jones,  In- 
dianapolis. 

Scrimshaw. — Bricklaying  in  Modern  Practice.  The  Mac- 
millan Company. 

Searle. — Modern  Brickmaking.  D.  Van  Nostrand  Com- 
pany. 

Snow  and  Froehlich. — Industrial  Art  Text  Books,  V,  VI, 
VII,  VIII.  The  Prang  Company. 

Tarr  and  McMurry. — New  Geographies,  Second  Book 
(Index  under  Brickmaking).  The  Macmillan  Com- 
pany. 

Toothaker. — Commercial  Raw  Materials.    Ginn  &  Co. 

Wells.— How  the  Present  Came  from  the  Past,  Book  Two 
(Index  under  Brick,  Masons,  Terra  Cotta).  The  Mac- 
millan Company. 


Pottery  of  Indian  and  of  Greek  Design  Made  by  College  Students 


THE  POTTERY  INDUSTRY 

Since  wet  clay  can  be  worked  into  various 
shapes  on  account  of  its  doughlike  condition 
and  can  be  hardened  by  means  of  fire,  it  has 
been  used  by  all  primitive  people  in  the  potter's 
craft.  Clay  is  made  up  of  minute  particles  which 
cling  together  when  moist  but  which  are  easily 
separated  when  dry.  If  we  stir  dry  clay  dust 
into  a  dish  of  water  we  shall  find  that  the  small 
particles  will  become  suspended  in  the  water. 
Besides  the  free  water  which  clay  possesses  it 
also  contains  a  small  amount  in  combination, 
which,  when  once  dried  out  by  fire,  can  not  be 
replaced.  Clay  once  burned  never  regains  its 
plasticity.  Sun-dried  or  adobe  bricks  are  not 
permanent  in  a  moist  climate.  Burned  bricks 
however  are  practically  imperishable  even  when 
exposed  to  the  weather. 

Clay  is  found  in  all  stages  of  purity.  It  is  often 
combined  with  sand,  iron,  or  vegetable  matter 
so  that  it  is  not  fit  for  use.  Kaolin  is  the  purest 
104 


THE  POTTERY  INDUSTRY  105 

form.  Ball  clay  (clay  containing  more  impuri- 
ties than  kaolin)  is  used  extensively  in  the  making 
of  table  dishes. 

Various  means  have  been  used  for  separating 
clay  from  its  impurities.  Most  of  these  depend 
upon  the  principle  that  the  small  particles  can 
be  suspended  in  water  and  thus  carried  away 
from  other  substances  which  are  heavier  and 
will  therefore  sink. 

All  clay  fired  at  a  low  temperature  is  porous; 
that  is,  it  absorbs  water.  The  same  clay  fired  at 
a  higher  temperature  vitrifies;  that  is,  becomes 
glassy  and  no  longer  absorbs  water.  All  clay 
products  can  be  classified  as  porous  or  vitrified. 
Brick,  terra  cotta,  drain  tile,  roofing  tile,  wall 
tile,  flower  pots  all  have  a  porous  body.  Table 
ware  may  be  either  porous  or  vitrified.  Porce- 
lain is  vitrified. 

Pottery  may  be  glazed  or  unglazed.  Glazed 
pottery,  which  may  be  divided  roughly  into  two 
classes,  the  once  fired  and  the  twice  fired,  con- 
sidered from  design  and  decoration  standpoints, 
forms  by  far  the  most  important  group  of  pottery 
products. 

Stoneware  is  a  pottery  made  from  either  light 
or  dark  clay.  It  is  glazed  on  the  unburned  body 
either  before  setting  in  the  kiln  or  by  means  of 
salt  during  the  burning  process,  and  is  burned  to 
a  dense,  hard  condition. 

Porcelain  is  a  white  vitrified,  translucent  ware, 


io6      ELEMENTARY  INDUSTRIAL  ARTS 

in  which  the  body  and 
glaze  are  brought  to 
completion  and  matur- 
ity at  one  and  the  same 
burning,  which  takes 
place  at  a  very  high 
temperature. 

China  is  a  ware 
similar  to  porcelain  in 
appearance,  though 
scarcely  as  white,  pro- 
duced by  a  double 
burning  in  which  the 
body  is  brought  to  its 
density  and  translu- 
cency  before  glazing, 
the  glaze  being  added 
subsequently  and  fired 
at  a  lower  temperature. 

Bone  china  is  a  vari- 
ety of  china  in  which 
calcined  bone  is  used 
as  an  ingredient,  consti- 
tuting about  forty  per 
cent  of  the  mass. 

Belleek,  named  from 
the  town  of  Belleek  on 

Courtesy  of  Lenox,  Incorporated  the    WCSt    COast    of     IfC- 

BELLEEK  CHINA  jand      jg     &    variety    of 

Autumn  Pattern 
Designed  by  Frank  G.  Holmes  china,    in    which    as    to 


Courtesy  of  Lenox,  Incorporated 

WHITE  HOUSE  SERVICE 
OF  PRESIDENT  WILSON 
The    first    White    House   Service 
designed    by    an    American    artist, 
made  chiefly  from  American  clays  at 
an  American  pottery  and  decorated 
by  American  workmen.   Frank    G. 
Holmes,  designer. 


THE  POTTERY  INDUSTRY 


107 


the  body,  feldspar  predominates,  imparting  a 
creamy  color;  it  is  glazed  with  an  extremely 
fusible  compound  consisting  largely  of  lead  oxide. 

Earthenware  is  a  white  or  nearly  white  body 
produced  like  china,  by  two  burnings,  but  in 
which  the  body  remains 
porous  in  varying  degree 
according  to  the  tem- 
perature employed.  The 
glaze  is  similar  to  that 
used  for  china,  but  chiefly 
made  from  the  cheaper 
materials. 

Vitreous  ware  and  semi- 
porcelain  are  "fancy" 
names  applied,  of  ten  with- 
out justification,  to  the 
varieties  of  earthenware 
as  they  approach  more 

or  less  the  composition  ot  china,  mere  is  no 
essential  difference  between  these  wares  and 
earthenware. 

Faience  is  fine  glazed  earthenware  used  for  orna- 
mental and  decorative  purposes.  Usually  there  is 
no  attempt  to  produce  a  white  body  and  the 
glazes  are  frequently  colored. 

Majolica  is  a  subdivision  of  faience  and  is 
generally  considered  to  include  those  wares  on 
which  the  glaze  has  been  made  opaque  by  the 
use  of  the  oxide  of  tin. 


THE  POTTER'S  WHEEL 
The  operator  sits  astride  the 
saddle-like  seat  and  whirls 
the  disk  by  moving  the  lever 
back  and  forth  with  his  left 
foot. 

of   china.     There 
between    these 


io8      ELEMENTARY  INDUSTRIAL  ARTS 

The  most  primitive  method  of  making  pottery 
is  by  the  hand  method  of  building.  Coils  of  clay 
are  wound  around,  one  on  top  of  the  other  and 
welded  together  by  pressing,  the  clay  first  having 
been  worked  to  a  soft  or  plastic  state  by  mixing 
with  water.  The  dish  is  shaped  and  smoothed 
by  hand.  (See  illustration  on  page  126.) 

When  vessels  of  circular  form  were  to  be  made 
the  potter's  wheel  was  formerly  employed,  al- 
though today  it  is  used  only  in  the  art  potteries. 
When  this  method  is  used,  the  lump  of  clay  is 
placed  on  a  revolving  horizontal  disk,  and  shaped 
by  the  hands  of  the  potter  who  keeps  his  hands 
moist  by  dipping  them  frequently  into  water. 
The  water  keeps  his  hands  from  sticking  to  the 
revolving  lump  of  clay.  After  the  vessel  has 
been  removed  from  the  wheel  and  has  become 
partially  dry,  it  is  sometimes  further  perfected 
by  means  of  turning  on  a  lathe,  sharp  tools  being 
used  in  refining  the  shape  of  the  damp  dish  or 
vase  as  it  revolves.  Handles  and  spouts  are  put 
on  the  vessels  before  firing  by  sticking  them  on 
with  slip  while  the  parts  are  still  moist. 

It  is  probable  that  the  Egyptians  invented 
the  potter's  wheel.  At  any  rate  we  know  that 
they  were  using  it  at  a  very  early  period  in  his- 
tory. The  ancient  Greek  vases  were  beautiful 
because  of  their  richness  and  simplicity  of  color, 
excellent  proportions  and  contours,  and  the  re- 
fined quality  of  their  decorations  which  were 


THE  POTTERY  INDUSTRY  109 

most  appropriate,  being  formed  by  harmonious 
lines  and  agreeable  spaces.  The  vases  usually 
had  handles.  Red  clay  was  used  almost  en- 
tirely. In  the  black-figured  ware  the  natural  red 
surface  of  the  dish  served  as  a  ground,  the  figures 
being  painted  in  black.  In  the  red-figured  ware 
the  figures  were  first  sketched  in  black  outline 
and  the  background  filled  in  with  black.  De- 
tails of  face  and  costume  were  put  in  on  the 
red  with  a  fine  black  outline.  The  black-on-red 
figured  ware  is  usually  less  attractive  than  the 
red  on  the  black  background  which  came  to  be 
used  more  and  more  until  the  earlier  method 
finally  disappeared  entirely. 

Casting  is  today  often  employed  when  pottery 
of  a  high  quality  is  desired  and  when  the  walls 
are  to  be  very  thin.  Clay  in  the  form  of  slip  is 
poured  into  plaster  of  Paris  molds.  The  plaster  of 
Paris  absorbs  the  water,  thus  causing  a  thin 
coating  of  clay  to  be  deposited  all  around  on  the 
inside  of  the  mold.  When  the  deposit  is  thick 
enough  to  form  the  walls  of  the  vase,  the  re- 
maining free  slip  is  poured  out,  leaving  the  wet 
piece  of  ware  on  the  inside  of  the  form.  After 
this  partially  dries  and  shrinks  somewhat,  it  is 
removed  from  the  mold.  This  is  simplified  by 
the  fact  that  when  necessary  the  molds  are  so 
constructed  that  they  can  be  taken  apart.  When 
the  piece  becomes  thoroughly  dry  it  is  smoothed 
and  prepared  for  firing.  It  is  placed  in  a  fire  clay 


i  io      ELEMENTARY  INDUSTRIAL  ARTS 

box  called  a  sagger  which  protects  the  piece  from 
the  flames  and  gases  just  as  an  oven  protects  a 


Courtesy  of  the  Rockwood  Pottery 
Placing  Saggers  in  the  Kiln 

loaf  of  bread.  The  saggers  are  placed  one  on  top 
of  the  other  in  a  kiln.  The  kiln  is  a  large  box- 
like  structure  built  of  fire  brick  and  surrounded 


THE  POTTERY  INDUSTRY 


in 


by  flues  in  order  that  the  fire  may  entirely  sur- 
round the  dishes  and  yet  not  actually  come  in 
contact  with  them,  as  smoke  would  discolor  them. 


©  Underwood  &•  Underwood 


Dipping  Bisque  Plates  in  Glaze  Preparatory  to  Firing; 
Worcester,  England 


Most  dishes  are  fired  twice.  The  first  firing  is 
called  the  bisque  firing  and  the  piece  of  pottery 
once  fired  is  called  a  biscuit  or  bisque  piece. 


U2      ELEMENTARY  INDUSTRIAL  ARTS 

The  biscuit  is  now  glazed.  A  glaze  is  a  glassy 
covering  placed  on  wares  to  beautify  them  and 
to  make  them  more  serviceable.  Glazes  usually 
contain  a  metal  which  gives  them  their  color. 
Iron  gives  red;  copper,  green;  cobalt,  blue;  etc. 
Glazes  contain  silica  which  is  often  just  sand 
ground  fine  and  is  the  main  ingredient  used  in 
making  glass.  Other  things  used  in  making 
glazes  are  lead  oxide,  calcium  oxide,  zinc  oxide 
and  alumina.  Clay  and  feldspar  are  also  used 
in  glazes.  The  various  materials  are  ground 
together  with  water  to  a  fine  milky  condition. 
The  biscuit  is  then  dipped  into  this  and  comes 
out  covered  completely.  When  fully  dry  the 
ware  is  again  placed  in  the  kiln  and  fired  to  a 
heat  high  enough  to  fuse  the  glaze  mix.  At  this 
temperature  the  various  materials  combine  and 
make  the  finished  glaze. 

The  processes  involved  in  the  manufacture  of 
modern  glazed  ware  may  be  enumerated  as 
follows:  preparing  the  clay,  preparing  the  glaze, 
modeling  and  moldmaking,  forming  the  ware, 
drying  the  ware,  sagger  making,  placing  ware  in 
the  saggers,  placing  saggers  in  the  kiln,  firing  the 
bisque  ware,  cleaning  the  biscuit,  selecting  and 
grading  the  ware,  stamping,  underglaze  deco- 
rating, dipping  in  glaze,  placing  dipped  ware  in 
the  saggers  and  the  saggers  in  the  glost  kiln, 
firing  glazed  (glost)  ware,  overglaze  decorating, 
firing  in  the  decorating  kiln.  Stoneware  and 


THE  POTTERY  INDUSTRY  113 

porcelain  are  produced  in  a  single  firing.  They 
must,  however,  receive  a  second  firing  for  overglaze 
if  decoration  is  to  be  applied  over  the  glaze. 

The  preparation  of  the  clay  involves  weighing, 
slip  making,  filter  pressing,  and  pugging.  A  man 
weighs  the  dry  clay  by  shoveling  it  from  the 
bins  into  a  car  which  weighs  it  automatically. 
When  the  scales  balance  he  shoves  the  car  to  the 
next  bin  and  to  the  next  until  it  reaches  the 
mixer.  Then  he  dumps  the  clay  into  the  hopper 
of  the  mixer  which  mixes  the  dry  clay  powder  in 
water  to  the  consistency  of  rich  cream.  From 
the  mixer  the  slip  runs  through  a  lawn  sieve  and 
over  magnets  which  remove  the  iron.  A  man 
cares  for  the  sieve  and  keeps  it  washed  clean  and 
in  good  condition. 

From  the  sieves  the  slip  is  pumped  into  canvas 
bags  which  arranged  in  a  row,  horizontally, 
constitute  a  filter  press.  The  bags  retain  the 
particles  of  clay  and  allow  the  free  water  to  per- 
colate through  their  meshes.  One  man  cares  for 
each  filter  press.  The  moist  clay  is  now  fed 
into  a  pug  mill  which  forces  the  air  out  of  it  and 
makes  it  plastic. 

The  materials  used  in  making  the  glaze  in 
most  commercial  establishments  are  weighed  out 
by  the  foreman  and  mixed  by  a  laborer  who 
generally  knows  nothing  about  the  composition 
of  the  glaze.  One  of  the  chief  constitutents 
of  glaze  is  frit.  The  materials  used  in  the  mak- 


ii4      ELEMENTARY  INDUSTRIAL  ARTS 

ing  of  frit  are  first  ground  in  a  mill,  then  weighed 
by  a  foreman  and  mixed  by  an  unskilled  laborer 
who  puts  the  mixture  into  a  sagger  for  firing. 
When  it  has  been  fired,  the  frit  comes  back  as  a 
piece  of  glass  firmly  attached  to  the  sagger,  from 
which  it  must  be  broken.  The  sagger  has  to  be 
sacrificed. 

No  report  on  the  workers  employed  in  the 
production  of  pottery  is  complete  without  men- 
tion being  made  of  the  modeler.  Model  making 
is  a  most  essential  phase  of  pottery  manufactur- 
ing; yet  one  man  can  handle  the  entire  field  of 
modeling  in  most  factories. 

The  modeler  makes  the  models  or  patterns  by 
means  of  which  molds  for  plates  and  hollow  ware 
are  made.  He  makes  them  from  clay  or  from 
plaster  of  Paris  and  sometimes  from  clay  and 
plaster  combined.  He  also  makes  the  models 
for  handles  and  the  other  irregular  appendages 
found  on  some  articles  of  pottery.  He  turns  the 
regular  cylindric  and  spheric  forms  and  some- 
times even  the  oval  forms  on  a  lathe  or  whirler. 
Models  for  irregularly  formed  hollow  ware  such  as 
pitchers  and  some  bowls  must  be  worked  out  en- 
tirely or  almost  entirely  by  hand. 

From  the  modeler's  model  the  mold  maker  casts 
a  block  mold  by  means  of  which  the  casters  or 
pressers  may  produce  the  part  in  clay.  The 
block  mold  is  used  rather  to  serve  as  a  form  for 
casting  a  case  mold.  It  is  by  means  of  the  case 


THE  POTTERY  INDUSTRY  115 

mold  that  the  mold  maker  is  able  to  cast  as  many 
working  molds  as  he  needs.  The  working  mold 
is  exactly  like  the  block  mold,  but  it  serves  a 
different  purpose. 

The  modeler  has  to  possess  considerable  ar- 
tistic taste.  He  must  be  able  to  employ  graceful 
lines  and  to  indicate  structural  growth.  He  must 
also  have  a  good  sense  of  proportion.  Some- 
times he  models  in  the  plastic  clay;  sometimes  he 
carves  the  plaster  in  a  dry  or  in  a  semimoist 
condition;  sometimes  he  produces  a  form  by 
turning  it  on  the  whirler  or  the  lathe.  Often 
several  methods  are  involved  in  the  making  of  a 
single  model.  The  problem  is  brought  to  the 
modeler  in  a  variety  of  ways.  He  may  work 
from  a  dimensioned  drawing  or  from  a  sample. 

Plates  and  flat  dishes  both  round  and  oval 
are  formed  over  a  plaster  form  which  whirls. 
The  machine  used  is  called  a  jigger.  The  jigger- 
man's  helper  throws  a  lump  of  clay  on  a  wet  plaster 
slab  in  order  to  flatten  it,  and  then  throws  over 
the  plaster  form  the  flat  clay  disk  thus  made. 
The  clay  disk  is  called  a  bat  and  the  process  of 
making  a  bat  is  called  batting  out.  When  the 
clay  ball  is  thrown  on  the  plaster  it  clings  to  the 
plaster  form  over  all  its  surface  all  the  way  round. 
When  the  form  with  the  clay  bat  on  it  is  made  to 
whirl,  the  jiggerman  lets  down  on  the  bat  a  templet 
which  shapes  the  outside  or  the  back  or  bottom  of 
the  dish  or  plate.  Bowls  and  cups  are  made,  with- 


n6      ELEMENTARY  INDUSTRIAL  ARTS 


out  their  handles,  on  jiggers.  The  plaster  form  in 
this  instance  shapes  the  outside  of  the  ware  whereas 
the  templet  shapes  the  inside.  In  oval  jiggering  a 
special  device  on  the  machine  makes  possible  the 

regular  formation 
of  shallow  and 
hollow  ware. 

Casting  is  al- 
ways employed 
when  hollow  ware 
of  irregular  shape 
is  to  be  made. 
Handles  are  either 
cast  or  pressed  as 
are  also  all  small 
irregularly  shaped 
flat  dishes.  In 


Courtesy  of  Onondaga  Pottery 

OPERATING  A  JIGGER 
At  the  right  will  be  seen  the  bat  of  wet 
clay  inverted  over  the  plaster  of  Paris  form. 
The  plaster  form  has  just  been  removed  by 
the  worker  who  has  the  handle  raised  ready 
to  lower  it  over  the  next  clay  bat. 


pressing,  the  plas- 
tic clay  is  pressed 
into  or  between 
plaster  of  Paris 
forms. 

After  the  dishes  or  appendages  (handles  and 
the  like)  are  received  from  the  jiggerman  or  the 
caster  or  the  presser,  they  are  finished  by  a  worker 
who  scrapes  off  their  rough  edges.  The  cups 
are  turned  smooth  on  a  mandrel.  Sharp  tools 
made  of  soft  steel  are  used  in  the  turning.  The 
dishes  now  go  to  the  spongers,  young  girls,  who 
smooth  them  with  moist  sponges.  If  handles 


THE  POTTERY  INDUSTRY  117 

are  to  be  put  on,  the  dishes  go  to  the  handlers, 
who  stick  the  handles  on  with  slip  and  sponge 
around  the  points  of  contact.  The  dishes  are 
now  taken  to  the  drying  room  on  boards  and 
allowed  to  dry  thoroughly. 

A  sagger  is  a  receptacle  made  of  fire  clay  and 
used  to  protect  the  ware  from  the  flames  and 
gases  while  it  is  in  the  kiln.  Fire  clay  is  made 
from  new  clay  mixed  with  other  clay  which  has 
been  fired  and  ground  fine.  Saggers  are  generally 
made  in  two  parts.  In  making  them  a  slab  of 
the  fire  clay  is  flattened  out  for  the  bottom  and 
then  a  second  slab  is  flattened  for  the  sides. 
The  walls  of  the  sagger  (before  firing)  are  about 
an  inch  thick.  Saggers  somewhat  resemble  wash 
boilers  in  shape.  They  are  assembled  over  wooden 
forms  by  the  sagger  maker  and  his  helper.  The 
bottom  and  sides  are  stuck  together  with  slip. 
The  standard  sagger  is  about  twelve  by  twelve 
by  twenty-four  inches.  Newly  made  saggers  are 
fired  in  the  top  of  the  kiln  above  those  already  in 
use. 

The  dry  ware  is  packed  in  the  sagger  in  a 
mixture  of  sand  and  dry  clay  (peach  clay}  which 
prevents  the  walls  of  the  dishes  from  warping  in  the 
fire.  One  man  piles  the  plates  in  bungs  or  stacks  and 
places  the  dry  mixture  between  the  plates  and 
another  man  sets  the  bungs  in  the  sagger. 

A  kiln  generally  holds  about  two  thousand 
saggers.  They  are  carried  to  it  and  stacked  up, 


ii8      ELEMENTARY  INDUSTRIAL  ARTS 

one  on  top  of  the  other,  by  the  kiln  placers  who 
carry  the  saggers  on  their  heads  in  order  to  facili- 
tate entering  the  narrow  kiln  door.  A  coil  of 
moist  clay  is  placed  along  the  rim  of  each  sagger. 
When  the  next  sagger  is  placed  on  top  of  it;  the 
one  below  is  thus  sealed  from  the  gases  which 
would  discolor  the  ware. 

The  temperature  for  firing  bisque  china  ware 
is  about  2262  degrees  Fahrenheit.  The  firing 
takes  about  fifty  hours  from  the  time  the  saggers 
are  placed  until  the  desired  heat  is  reached. 
The  kiln  takes  from  two  to  three  days  to  cool. 
Coal  and  natural  gas  are  the  fuels  commonly 
used. 

The  bisque  ware,  when  taken  from  the  kiln, 
is  rubbed  with  pieces  of  hard  wood.  In  this 
way  the  sand  and  clay  adhering  to  the  surface  are 
removed.  This  work  is  extremely  dusty.  In 
most  plants  it  is  done  by  women.  After  cleaning, 
the  heavy  ware  such  as  is  used  in  hotels  is  placed 
in  a  tumbling  mill  which  tumbles  the  dishes  over 
and  over  with  fragments  of  broken  ware  much  as 
clothes  are  tumbled  in  a  revolving  washing 
machine.  This  frees  the  surface  of  the  ware 
from  the  bits  of  clay  adhering  to  it. 

When  the  dishes  have  been  glazed  an  inspector 
examines  each  piece  and  strikes  it  with  a  piece  of 
steel  to  detect  cracks.  All  pieces  are  classified 
by  him  as  of  first,  second,  or  third  quality. 

If  the  ware  is  to  be  without  decoration  it  is 


THE  POTTERY  INDUSTRY  119 

dipped  in  the  glaze  at  once  after  firing.  If  it 
is  to  be  decorated  under  the  glaze,  the  design  is 
transferred  to  the  ware  and  the  under  glaze  bands 
and  lines  are  put  on  with  the  brush  before  the 


Courtesy  of  Onondaga  Pottery 

Decorators  Applying  Line  and  Band  Patterns 

ware  is  dipped.  Colored  lines  and  bands  are  put 
on  the  once-fired  ware  with  a  brush.  Each  dish  is 
spun  round  on  a  whirler  as  the  decorator  applies 
the  color.  A  man  dips  each  piece  of  undecorated 
or  decorated  ware  separately  into  a  tub  of  slip 
formed  by  the  glaze  mix  and  water. 


120      ELEMENTARY  INDUSTRIAL  ARTS 

Less  heat  is  used  in  firing  glost  than  in  firing 
bisque  ware  and,  in  glost  firing,  the  dry  clay 
and  sand  are  not  used  between  the  dishes  in 
the  saggers.  The  inside  of  the  sagger  used  for 
glost  ware  is  fitted  with  nonfusible  china  pins  stuck 
into  the  sides  for  holding  and  suspending  each 
plate  separately.  There  is  a  hub  in  the  center 
of  the  sagger  which  also  carries  suspending  pins 
to  support  the  edges  of  plates.  Small  pieces  of 
ware  are  placed  in  the  center  of  the  sagger  and 
wherever  there  is  room  about  the  plates  and 
saucers. 

Most  of  the  tableware  used  to-day  is  decorated. 
This  decoration  is  often  accomplished  by  the 
use  of  colored  glazes  and  also  by  overglaze  colors 
as  is  the  case  in  china  painting.  Good  designs 
are  those  which  are  well  adapted  to  a  flat  surface 
and  which  therefore  are  not  naturalistic.  They 
should  emphasize  the  shape  of  the  dish.  In 
other  words,  the  dish  should  be  made  to  look 
stronger  and  more  beautiful  because  of  its  deco- 
ration. It  should  not  look  less  like  a  dish.  If 
the  decoration  does  not  accomplish  this  it  had 
better  be  omitted. 

Practically  all  the  porcelain  ware  used  in  the 
United  States  is  imported.  America  produces  to-day 
as  fine  chinaware,  however,  as  is  made  anywhere 
in  the  world.  Our  china  product  includes  what  is 
known  in  the  trade  as  dinner  ware  and  hotel  ware, 
the  making  of  which  has  been  described  above. 


THE  POTTERY  INDUSTRY  121 

Dinner  ware  is  lighter  and  not  so  strong  as  hotel 
ware  which  is  made  to  withstand  washing  in 
the  dish  washing  machines  used  in  hotels. 

It  will  be  remembered  that  china  resembles 
porcelain  in  appearance.  In  making  china,  two 
firings  are  required  while  porcelain  requires  but 
one.  Dinner  ware  and  hotel  ware  are  decorated 
in  practically  the  same  manner  except  that 
the  designs  are  applied  to  the  biscuit  in  the 
case  of  hotel  ware  and  generally  to  the  glazed  dish 
in  the  case  of  dinner  ware.  In  both  instances  the 
same  method  is  employed  in  transferring  the 
decorative  patterns.  Perhaps  you  have  at  some 
time  used  decalcomania  transfers.  These  are 
still  offered  for  sale  in  some  toy  stores.  You 
may  be  able  to  get  some  to  bring  to  school.  De- 
calcomania transfers  are  used  extensively  in 
advertising.  Signs  are  often  put  on  glass  win- 
dows by  means  of  decalcomania. 

Before  describing  the  exact  manner  of  trans- 
ferring designs  it  will  be  interesting  for  us  to 
observe  the  designer  as  he  produces  a  design. 
We  will  imagine  that  he  has  before  him  the  task 
of  creating  a  new  decorative  pattern  for  dinner 
ware.  Before  going  to  work  upon  his  design 
he  makes  a  careful  study  of  the  market.  He 
visits  department  stores  and  the  art  museum  and 
he  reads  the  trade  journals  in  order  to  determine 
the  character  of  his  proposed  design  which  must 
not  only  be  as  beautiful  as  possible  but  must  also 


122      ELEMENTARY  INDUSTRIAL  ARTS 

be  in  the  prevailing  fashion  to  be  a  good  seller. 
There  is  always  a  prevailing  fashion  in  dinner  ware 
just  as  there  is  a  prevailing  fashion  in  dress.  At  one 
time  black  stripes,  little  red  flowers,  and  gold  bands 
may  be  in  vogue,  and  at  another  time  blue  birds 
and  green  leaves  may  be  popular. 

The  designer  makes  several  small  sketches 
from  which  he  chooses  the  one  which  he  believes 
to  be  the  most  appropriate.  This  he  draws  in 
careful  detail  upon  a  piece  of  special  paper  into 
which  there  has  been  impressed  in  slight  relief 
the  form  of  a  plate.  He  divides  the  circumference 
of  the  plate  into  four  equal  parts  and  he  con- 
tinues his  pattern  along  the  rim  over  one  quarter 
of  the  plate's  circumference.  When  he  has  finished 
his  drawing  in  pencil  outline  he  colors  it  with 
opaque  water  color. 

The  print  method  of  transferring  designs  to 
dishes  is  a  simple  process  by  which  ceramic 
colors  instead  of  ink  are  printed  upon  a  special 
paper  called  printer's  tissue,  and  transferred 
from  this  paper  to  the  ware.  In  producing  these 
prints  the  designs  are  engraved  by  hand  upon 
a  copper  plate.  Then  they  are  printed  on  the 
printer's  tissue  just  as  visiting  cards  are  printed 
from  the  copper  intaglio  plates. 

Lithographed  decals  (decalcomania  patterns) 
are  produced  by  printing  from  the  surface  of 
smooth,  flat  stones.  The  lithographing  process  is 
quite  difficult  to  understand.  It  is  based  on  the 


THE  POTTERY  INDUSTRY 


123 


fact  that  certain  substances  on  the  surface  of  the 
specially  prepared  stone  plate  act  as  a  resist  to  the 
ceramic  color  which  is  used  in  the  place  of  ink. 

The  print  and 
decal  papers  are 
pressed  color  side 
down  on  the  ware 
and  when  the 
paper  is  washed 
away  the  pattern 
remains.  When 
a  single  color  is 
wanted  the  en- 
graved plate  or 
print  method  is 
used.  When  more 
than  one  color  is 
wanted  the  decal- 
comania  method 
is  generally  used, 
although  two  colors  and  sometimes  three  are 
successfully  reproduced  by  means  of  engraved 
copper  plates. 

I 

THE  MAKING  OF  A  VASE 
PREPARING  THE  CLAY 

It  is  possible  that  clay  suitable  for  the  making 
of  dishes  may  be  found  in  the  vicinity  of  our 
school  building.  Let  us  look  for  it.  The  clay 
soil  may  be  brought  into  the  schoolroom  in 


Courtesy  of  Onondaga  Pottery 
Decorators  Applying  Print  Pattern 
(Transfers)  in  One  Color 


124      ELEMENTARY  INDUSTRIAL  ARTS 

lumps  which  we  shall  break  in  order  to  remove 
the  large  stones  and  roots.  It  is  now  put  in  a 
large  pail  partly  filled  with  water  and  stirred. 
The  mud  having  been  thoroughly  mixed  to  the 
consistency  of  thick  cream,  it  is  poured  through 
a  screen  into  a  second  pail.  The  small  stones 
are  in  this  way  removed.  An  ordinary  window 
screen  may  be  used,  although  a  finer  sieve  is 
desirable.  After  being  left  over  night,  the  clear 
water  is  poured  off  and  the  clay  that  has  settled 
is  spread  out  in  the  sun  to  dry  sufficiently  for 
use.  Before  being  used,  however,  it  must  be  made 
plastic  by  being  worked  for  a  few  minutes  in 
the  hands. 

The  clay  may,  if  it  is  desired,  be  put  through  the 
screen  dry.  This  method,  although  not  according  to 
industrial  practice,  will  be  found  better  adapted  to 
school  conditions. 

MAKING   THE   DESIGN 

Refer  to  pages  125  and  127  for  suggestions. 

Designs  for  vases  are  worked  out  in  school  by 
folding  and  cutting  paper.  In  this  way  silhouette 
patterns  are  produced.  The  shapes  planned  must 
be  simple,  the  sides  kept  nearly  vertical.  The 
silhouette  is  transferred  to  drawing  paper  tinted 
to  match  the  color  of  the  clay  after  it  has  been 
fired.  A  decorative  border  or  surface  design  in- 
volving the  repetition  of  a  unit  may  be  worked 
out  with  colored  crayons  or  with  opaque  water 


THE  POTTERY  INDUSTRY  125 

color  paints.     The  colors  used  may   be  (i)    the 

color  of  the  clay  after  firing,  (2)  orange  (yellow- 
red),  (3)  red,  (4)  black. 


FORMING   THE   VASE 


The    vases    are    made    by    building    with    clay 
coils  rolled  between  the  hands  and  the  desk  top; 


Courtesy  of  the  artist.  Ellsworth  Woodward 
Clay  Utensils  Made  by  the  American  Indians 

we  shall  protect  the  desk  by  a  sheet  of  linoleum, 
a  board,  or  a  piece  of  heavy  paper.  A  paste- 
board disk  having  the  same  diameter  as  the 
base  of  the  proposed  vase  is  used  as  a  guide  in 
starting.  This  is  covered  with  coils  of  clay  wound 
around  in  a  spiral  and  pressed  together  to  form 
a  disk  about  one-fourth  of  an  inch  thick.  The 
building  of  the  walls  is  accomplished  by  this 
spiral  arrangement  of  coils  which  are  welded 
together  by  being  pressed  firmly  against  the 


126      ELEMENTARY  INDUSTRIAL  ARTS 


ever  growing  wall.  The  clay  should  be  kept 
plastic.  If  the  walls  become  unsteady  because 
of  their  moist  condition  and  the  weight  of  the 
clay,  the  work  should  be  set  aside  to  become 
leather-hard]  then  building  may  be  continued. 


©rollincj 


Ofbrmmn  coil  for  base 


How  to  make,  a 


and  trued 

ujitK  kvaLfo.  and.  sand- 
paper 


Bcfore  continuing,  however,  the  rim  formed  by 
the  last  coil  should  be  cut  squarely  off  with  a 
knife  and  a  thick  mixture  of  slip  applied  with 
a  bristle  brush.  A  mucilage  brush  will  answer  the 
purpose. 

When   the   vase   has   been   entirely   built   it   is 


Pottery  Made  in  School  and  Fired  in  Iron  Covered  Kettles  in  an 
Open  Fire  in  the  School  Yard 


128      ELEMENTARY  INDUSTRIAL  ARTS 

allowed  to  dry  out  somewhat.  Then  it  is  scraped 
and  carefully  trued  with  a  knife  and  finally  with 
sandpaper. 

DECORATING 

The  design  is  now  scratched  in  by  means  of  the 
sharp  point  of  a  wire  nail,  before  the  clay  is 
thoroughly  dry.  The  parts  to  be  colored  are 
brushed  over  with  slip  and  the  color  is  applied 
immediately.  Pigment  colors  for  application  to 
the  clay  may  be  produced  by  reducing  rotten 
stones  of  various  colors  to  powder  by  means 
of  a  hammer,  or  better,  by  a  mortar  and  pestle. 
Colors  may  also  be  procured  at  a  paint  or  drug 
store.  Yellow  ocher  is  used  for  yellow-red,  red 
oxide  of  iron  for  red,  and  black  oxide  of  copper  for 
black.  The  colors  in  powder  form  are  mixed  with 
liquid  glue  and  are  painted  upon  the  slightly 
moist  clay  in  the  form  of  a  thick  paste.  It  is  a 
good  idea  to  scratch  the  surface  with  a  pin  or 
piece  of  broken  window  glass  before  painting 
the  clay  as  this  will  improve  the  bond. 

FIRING 

In  firing  pottery  it  is  not  necessary  to  use  a 
real  kiln  in  order  to  do  the  work.  Iron  kettles 
placed  in  an  open  fire  of  wood  will  make  it  pos- 
sible for  us  to  fire  our  pottery  by  an  open  fire 
method  similar  to  that  employed  long  ago  by 
the  American  Indians.  The  kettles  will  keep 


THE  POTTERY  INDUSTRY 


129 


the  burning  embers  from  falling  upon  and  break- 
ing the  dishes.  They  should  have  iron  covers. 
The  heating  and  cooling  should  be  gradual,  the  ket- 
tles being  kept  at  a  red  heat  for  at  least  an  hour. 


f^HSw^WsS^R^SBiJwpP 


Firing  Pottery  in  the  School  Yard 

If  there  is  no  clay  at  hand,  it  may  be  obtained 
from  a  school  supply  house.  A  low  temperature 
clay  should  be  specified  when  ordering. 

In  connection  with  the  study  of  pottery  it  is 
suggested  that  the  class  collect  magazine  illustra- 
tions by  which  articles  of  pottery  are  advertised. 
These  pictures  can  be  mounted  on  large  cards  and 
the  dishes  illustrated  should  be  compared.  The 


130      ELEMENTARY  INDUSTRIAL  ARTS 

shapes  should  be  judged  from  the  standpoints 
of  utility  and  beauty.  Articles  of  pottery  or 
fragments  of  pottery  may  also  be  collected  to 
illustrate  stoneware  and  chinaware. 


KETTLES  AFTER  THE  FIRE  HAS  DIED  DOWN 
The  covers  have  been  removed  to  show  the  fired  ware 

II 

THE  MAKING  OF  A  PLASTER  MOLD  FOR  SLIP 
POURING 

We  shall  now  learn  how  to  make  a  plaster  mold 
from  a  small  bowl  or  cup.  This  is  the  method 
employed  in  industry  for  making  a  number  of 
cups  or  vases,  all  just  alike. 

Bring  a  bowl  or  a  small  glass  tumbler  from  home 
for  the  purpose  of  making  the  mold.  Choose  a 
small  article  without  a  handle  or  a  projecting  ring 
at  the  bottom.  The  processes  involved  in  making  a 
mold  are  as  follows: 


THE  POTTERY  INDUSTRY  131 

(i)  Invert  the  tumbler  over  a  disk  of  clay  which 
is  at  least  ^4  inch  in  thickness  and  equal  in  diam- 
eter to  the  diameter  of  the  mouth  of  the  tumbler. 


:up 


plaster  paris 
poured  over 
xnvarted  cup 
and.  filled  to 
top  of  wall 


belt  placed  over  cup  , 
forming  an  outside,  wall, 
stren.qtKen.cd  with,  strung 
and  clau 


cup  removed  from  plaster 
mold,    sh.owi.rLCf  quarter 
section,    of  plantar  mold 


Making  a  plaster  mold  for  slip  pourmcp- 


(See  I  in  illustration.)  This  is  placed  upon  a  small 
piece  of  board  which  has  been  covered  with  a 
piece  of  stencil  or  oiled  paper. 

(2)  Cut  a  piece  of  heavy,  flexible,  oiled  paper  into 
the  form  of  a  belt,  at  least  I  inch  wider  than  the 


I32      ELEMENTARY  INDUSTRIAL  ARTS 

height  of  the  dish  for  which  the  mold  is  to  be  made, 
and  long  enough  to  encircle  the  tumbler,  leaving  at 
least  i  inch  between  the  belt  and  the  dish  all  the 
way  round.  Sew  the  two  ends  of  the  belt  together 
with  a  piece  of  string.  It  will  serve  as  an  outside 
form  wall,  as  shown  in  3  of  the  picture. 

(3)  Strengthen    this    wall    by    winding    string 
around  it  and  by  banking  moist  clay  against  it 
on  the  outside.    (See  4  in  illustration.) 

(4)  Prepare  a  size  by  dissolving  a  piece  of  soap, 
as  large  as  a  walnut,  in  one-half  pint  of  water. 
The  water  may  be  heated  to  hasten  the  process. 
When  cool  the  size  should  be  of  the  consistency 
of  syrup. 

(5)  A  coat  of  size  is  now  applied  with  a  brush 
to  the  entire  surface  of  the  inverted  tumbler.     It 
is  well  to  go  over  the  tumbler  twice  to  make  sure 
that  all  parts  have  been  covered. 

(6)  Plaster  of  Paris  is  now  mixed  in  another 
dish  for  pouring.     For  every  quart  of  water  2^ 
pounds  of  plaster  should  be  used.     The  plaster 
is  put  into  the  water,  a  handful  at  a  time.    When 
it  has  been  allowed  to  soak  for  two  minutes,  the 
hand  of  the  worker  is  put  into  the  mixing  dish 
and   the   plaster   thoroughly  stirred   to   the   con- 
sistency of  cream.     The  mixture  is  soon  felt  to 
thicken.     When  it  has  become  as  thick  as  batter 
it  should   be   poured   at  once  over  the  inverted 
tumbler,   care  being  taken  to  cover  all  parts  of 
its  surface.     Fill  the  form  to  the  top  of  the  wall 


THE  POTTERY  INDUSTRY  133 

as  shown  in  5  of  the  illustration.  Air  bubbles 
must  be  broken  or  kept  from  being  poured  into 
the  form. 

(7)  The  work  is  now  left  for  a  few  minutes, 
while  attention  is  given  to  the  mixing  dish  which 
must  be  rinsed   at  once  before  the  plaster   sets. 
The  rinsing  water  should  be  carried  out  of  doors; 
if  poured  into  a  sink,  it  will  stop  up  the  drain  pipe. 

(8)  The   process   of   hardening,    called   setting, 
began  as  soon  as  the-  liquid  plaster  was  poured 
into  the  form.     In  about  ten  minutes  from  the 
time  of  pouring,   the  plaster  will   begin   to  heat. 
This  warmth  indicates  the  completion  of  setting. 

(9)  The   paper  belt  is  now  removed   and   the 
sides  of  the  plaster  mold  are  trued  with  a  knife. 
This  is  easily  done  as  the  walls  are  still  quite  soft. 

(10)  The  plaster  cast  is  next  turned  over  and 
the  tumbler  removed. 

(n)  The  mold  is  now  put  aside  to  dry.  It  is 
important  that  all  the  water  dry  out  of  the  plaster 
form  before  it  is  used  for  casting. 

in 
THE  CASTING  OF  A  SMALL  BOWL  OR  TUMBLER 

BY  MEANS  OF  A  PLASTER  MOLD 
Bowls  are  cast  by  pouring  slip  into  plaster  of 
Paris  molds.  It  is  convenient  to  make  the  slip  in 
small  quantities.  Let  us  place  in  a  dish  of  water, 
a  lump  of  clay  which  has  been  thoroughly  kneaded 
to  a  plastic  condition.  Warm  water  is  preferable. 


134      ELEMENTARY  INDUSTRIAL  ARTS 

We  shall  mix  this  with  the  water  by  constantly 
squeezing  the  lump  of  clay  at  the  bottom  of  the 
dish  until  it  disappears.  The  mixture  of  clay 
and  water  will  get  thicker  and  thicker  as  additional 
particles  of  clay  become  suspended  in  the  water 
until  the  consistency  of  batter  is  finally  reached. 
The  slip  is  now  poured  through  a  sieve  into  a 
large  pail  in  order  to  remove  any  remaining  small 
lumps  of  clay. 

(i)  The  plaster  molds  which  were  made  in 
the  previous  lessons  are  arranged  in  a  row. 
Two  pouring  dishes  are  provided  for  the  slip. 
Pitchers  may  be  used  or  "tin"  cans  bent  to  facilitate 
pouring.  Before  using  the  slip,  however,  it  should 
be  slowly  poured  back  and  forth  from  one  pitcher 
to  the  other  in  order  to  break  any  of  the  air  bubbles 
which  are  likely  to  form  in  newly  prepared  slip. 

Each  plaster  mold  still  retains  some  of  the 
soap  size  which  must  be  removed  before  the  mold 
can  be  used.  It  is  therefore  cleansed  by  being 
filled  with  the  slip,  which  is  at  once  emptied  out. 
It  is  then  allowed  to  stand  for  ten  minutes  in 
order  that  the  water  may  be  absorbed  from  the 
clay  which  has  been  deposited  upon  the  walls. 
This  thin  lining  of  clay  is  now  picked  out  by  means 
of  a  small  piece  of  plastic  clay,  which  is  pressed 
against  it.  The  thin  clay  coating  will  readily 
adhere  to  the  piece  of  moist  clay.  If  all  of  it 
cannot  be  taken  out  in  this  way  it  may  be  wiped 
out  with  a  piece  of  cloth.  After  being  cleaned 


ilaster 


pour  piaster 
molds  full  of  slip 


© 

form  inverted 

upon,  two  sticks 

to  allow  clau  to 

dru 


pou.r  free   slip  back  mto 
pitcKor,  a  wall  5"  in.  tHick- 
nass  remains  in.  naold, 
wkxcn.  Kas  bean,  drawn,  bo 
in.sx.de  of  plaster  form. 


the  nowlu  cast, 
bowl  will  drop 
down  on.  tabla 
between  sticks 
whan,  drv 


showing  n.c\vlvj  cast 
bowl  and.  section.  oF 
plaster  mold. 


Casting  a  small  bowl  bvj  maans   of  a  plasbar  cast 


136      ELEMENTARY  INDUSTRIAL  ARTS 

the   form   should   again    be   allowed    to   dry   out 
thoroughly. 

(2)  Each  of  the  plaster  molds  in  turn  is  now 
poured  brimful  of  slip,  which  is  allowed  to  round 
over  the  opening  in  a  little  mound,  which  gradually 
sinks  lower  and  lower  into  the  form  as  water  is 
absorbed   into   its   plaster  walls.     After  the  last 
form  has  been  filled  it  is  likely  that  the  first  will 
be  ready  for  refilling.     The  process  of  filling  is 
continued,  each  of  the  forms  being  kept  brimful. 
After  all  have  been  kept  full  for  a  couple  of  min- 
utes, the  blade  of  a  knife  is  scraped  across  the  brim 
of  the  first  form  in  order  to  determine  the  thickness 
of  the  clay  wall  which  has  been  drawn   to  the 
inside  of  the  plaster  form,  this  clay  deposit  forming 
the  wall  of  the  dish  which  is  being  cast.    A  thick- 
ness of  one-eighth  inch  is  desirable.     If  the  walls 
have  not  attained  this  thickness  the  pouring  must 
be  resumed. 

(3)  The   plaster  form   is   next   carefully   lifted 
and  the  free  slip  poured  out,  as  shown  in  2  of 
the  illustrations  on  page  135. 

(4)  Each  form  is  now  inverted  upon  two  sticks 
or  pencils  to   provide  for  circulation  of  the  air 
under  it.    (See  3  in  illustration.)    A  small  quantity 
of  slip  will  drip  from  the  forms  before  the  drying 
begins.   The  forms  should  be  left  inverted  and  un- 
disturbed for  at  least  an  hour,  at  the  end  of  which 
time  the  first  may  be  examined  for  removal.   If  the 
drying  has  progressed  far  enough  the  clay  wall  will 


THE  POTTERY  INDUSTRY  137 

be  found  to  have  shrunken  slightly  from  the  plaster. 
Often  the  newly  cast  clay  dish  will  drop  down 
on  the  table  between  the  sticks  or  pencils.  If 
the  dish  does  not  drop  down  of  its  own  accord 
the  form  should  be  held  brim  down  in  the  palm 
of  the  left  hand  while  it  is  tapped  sharply  with 
the  fingers  of  the  right  hand. 

(5)  The  newly  cast  dishes  are  put  aside  to  dry. 
After  they  have  become  quite  dry  they  are  finished 
with  No.  oo  sandpaper.  They  are  then  fired. 

IV 

THE  MAKING  OF  A  SQUARE  DISH  OR  JARDINIERE 

FOR  FLOWERS 

Our  jardiniere  will  be  elevated  upon  four  feet, 
one  at  each  corner.  If  a  kiln  is  available,  this 
piece  should  be  glazed.  The  side  of  the  flower 
dish  will  furnish  a  problem  in  design  involving 
an  application  of  the  principle  of  balance.  We 
shall  determine  the  proportions  first,  after  which 
we  shall  consider  the  placing  and  shape  of  legs, 
the  decoration,  and  the  color.  The  design  will 
be  incised  by  means  of  a  sharp  nail.  The  motif 
for  the  design  may  be  suggested  by  natural  forms 
such  as  flowers,  fruit,  birds,  etc.,  or  it  may  be 
geometric.  Our  design  on  paper  should  emphasize 
the  shape  and  surface  of  the  dish.  We  shall  work 
with  colored  crayons,  striving  to  represent  correctly 
the  colors  of  the  clay  and  the  minerals  used  in 
decorating.  The  color  scheme  will  be  analagous; 


138      ELEMENTARY  INDUSTRIAL  ARTS 

i.e.,  containing  those  colors  lying  next  to  one  an- 
other in  the  color  circuit,  as  blue  and  blue-green; 
blue-green  and  green;  green  and  green-yellow,  etc. 

We  shall  make  the  sides  and  bottom  separately 
(five  pieces).  These  parts  will  be  welded  together 
by  means  of  slip.  The  surfaces  to  be  united  are 
first  covered  with  slip  applied  with  a  bristle 
brush.  The  surfaces  are  immediately  united  by 
being  pressed  firmly  together  and  tapped  with 
the  finger  tips  to  increase  the  bond. 

The  jardiniere  may  be  fired,  either  according 
to  the  open  fire  method  or  in  the  school  kiln,  if 
it  is  to  be  glazed. 

POTTER'S  SONG 

Turn,  turn,  my  wheel!  Turn  round  and  round 
Without  a  pause,  without  a  sound ; 

So  spins  the  flying  world  away! 
This  clay,  well  mixed  with  marl  and  sand, 
Follows  the  motion  of  my  hand ; 
For  some  must  follow,  and  some  command, 

Though  all  are  made  of  clay! 

Turn,  turn,  my  wheel!  All  things  must  change 
To  something  new,  to  something  strange; 

Nothing  that  is  can  pause  or  stay; 
The  moon  will  wax,  the  moon  will  wane, 
The  mist  and  cloud  will  turn  to  rain, 
The  rain  to  mist  and  cloud  again, 

To-morrow  be  to-day. 

Turn,  turn,  my  wheel!  All  life  is  brief; 
What  now  is  bud  will  soon  be  leaf, 
What  now  is  leaf  will  soon  decay; 


I4o      ELEMENTARY  INDUSTRIAL  ARTS 

The  wind  blows  east,  the  wind  blows  west; 
The  blue  eggs  in  the  robin's  nest 
Will  soon  have  wings  and  beak  and  breast, 
And  flutter  and  fly  away. 

Turn,  turn,  my  wheel!  This  earthen  jar 
A  touch  can  make,  a  touch  can  mar; 

And  shall  it  to  the  Potter  say, 
What  makest  thou?  Thou  hast  no  hand? 
As  men,  who  think  to  understand 
A  world  by  their  Creator  planned, 

Who  wiser  is  than  they. 

Turn,  turn,  my  wheel !   'Tis  nature's  plan 
The  child  should  grow  into  the  man, 

The  man  grow  wrinkled,  old,  and  gray; 
In  youth  the  heart  exults  and  sings, 
The  pulses  leap,  the  feet  have  wings; 
In  age  the  cricket  chirps,  and  brings 

The  harvest-home  of  day. 

Turn,  turn,  my  wheel!  The  human  race, 
Of  every  tongue,  of  every  place, 

Caucasian,  Coptic,  or  Malay, 
All  that  inhabit  this  great  earth, 
Whatever  be  their  rank  or  worth, 
Are  kindred  and  allied  by  birth, 

And  made  of  the  same  clay. 

Turn,  turn,  my  wheel!  What  is  begun 
At  daybreak  must  at  dark  be  done, 

To-morrow  will  be  another  day; 
To-morrow  the  hot  furnace  flame 
Will  search  the  heart  and  try  the  frame, 
And  stamp  with  honor  or  with  shame 

These  vessels  made  of  clay. 


THE  POTTERY  INDUSTRY  141 

Stop,  stop,  my  wheel!  Too  soon,  too  soon 
The  noon  will  be  the  afternoon, 

Too  soon  to-day  be  yesterday ; 
Behind  us  in  our  path  we  cast 
The  broken  potsherds  of  the  past, 
And  all  are  ground  to  dust  at  last, 

And  trodden  into  Clay! 

From  "Keramos"  by  HENRY  WADSWORTH  LONGFELLOW 

This  poem  is  used  by  permission  of,  and  special  arrangement  with, 
Houghton  Mifflin  Company,  the  authorized  publishers  of  Long- 
fellow's poems. 


EXERCISES  FOR  STUDY  AND  REVIEW 

(1)  By  what  people  was  the  first  pottery  made  in  Amer- 
ica?    What  kind  of  pottery  was  it?    How  was  it  made? 

(2)  What   kind   of  clay   is   used   in   making   the   finest 
grades  of  pottery? 

(3)  Is  pottery  a  healthful  occupation?    Can  it  be  made 
more  healthful  than  it  is? 

(4)  What  are  some  of  the  qualities  which  good  table- 
ware should  possess? 

(5)  How  can  you  tell  a  good  decoration  on  tableware 
when  you  see  it? 

(6)  Explain    Neils   Forsberg's   picture  "Potter  of  Saint 
Amand." 

(7)  What  shapes  of  ware  are  usually  cast?  Why? 

(8)  Why  are  saggers  used  in  firing  most  kinds  of  pottery? 

(9)  Bernard  Palissy  was  a  potter  who  once  produced 
some  very  beautiful  glazes.     Read  the  story  in  the  book 
suggested  at  the  end  of  this  chapter  or  refer  to  his  name 
in  the  encyclopedia. 

(10)  Where  are  the  great  pottery  centers  of  the  United 
States?  Why  do  you  think  these  locations  were  chosen? 


142      ELEMENTARY  INDUSTRIAL  ARTS 

(n)   If  you  had  an  opportunity  to  work  in  a  pottery 
what  kind  of  work  would  you  prefer  to  do? 


SUGGESTED  READING  ABOUT  POTTERY 

Barber. — The  Pottery  and  Porcelain  of  the   United  States. 

G.  P.  Putnam's  Sons. 

Binns. — The  Potter's  Craft.     D.  Van  Nostrand  Company. 
Bishop   and    Keller. — Industry    and    Trade    (Index    under 

Clay  Industry).    Ginn  &  Co. 
Bush  and  Bush. — Industrial  and  Applied  Art  Books,   V, 

VI,  VII,  VIII.    Atkinson,  Mentzer  &  Company. 
Cox. — Pottery  for  Artists,    Craftsmen,   and   Teachers.   The 

Macmillan  Company. 
Holland. — Historic  Inventions  (See  Palissy  and  His  Enamel). 

George  W.  Jacobs  &  Co. 
Longfellow. — Complete  Poems  (See  Keramos).    Hough  ton, 

Mifflin  Company. 
Moore. — Wedgwood    and    His    Imitators.      Frederick    A. 

Stokes  Company. 
Pettier. — Douris  and  the  Painters  of  Greek    Vases.     John 

Murray,  London. 
Snow  and  Froehlich. — Industrial  Arts  Text  Books,  V,  VI, 

VII,  VIII.    The  Prang  Company. 

Tarr  and  McMurry. — New  Geographies  (Index  under 
Delftware,  Limoges,  Porcelain  Manufacture,  Rookwood). 
The  Macmillan  Company. 

Toothaker. — Commercial  Raw  Materials.    Ginn  &  Co. 

Wells. — How  the  Present  Came  from,  the  Past,  Book  Two 
(Index  under  Vessels,  Dishes,  Furnace,  Glaze,  Potters, 
Pottery,  Vases).  The  Macmillan  Company. 

Williams. — How  It  Is  Made  (Chapter  VII,  Chinaware 
and  Porcelain).  Thomas  Nelson  &  Sons. 


Walter  S.  Louderback 

CEMENT  AGE 


VI 
CEMENT  AND  CONCRETE 

We  hear  a  great  deal  more  nowadays  than 
formerly  about  concrete  construction.  A  long 
list  of  things  ranging  from  sidewalks  and  fence 
posts  to  great  buildings,  dams,  bridges,  barges, 
and  even  large  ships  are  built  of  it,  and  yet  its 
use  as  a  constructive  material  is  not  new.  The 
great  Chinese  wall  was  built  largely  from  con- 
crete and  the  Romans  at  the  beginning  of  the 
Christian  era  made  use  of  it  almost  as  generally 
as  we  do  today.  The  ancients,  however,  em- 
ployed a  ground  natural  cement,  whereas  we  use 
a  manufactured  product. 

The  popularity  of  concrete  as  a  building  ma- 
terial is  due  to  its  cheapness,  convenience,  dura- 
bility, strength,  and  fire-resisting  qualities.  For 
building  purposes,  it  is  superior  to  most  va- 
rieties of  stone  both  in  strength  and  in  durability 
while  stone  is,  of  course,  far  more  expensive. 
Concrete  is  replacing  timber  in  many  of  the 
industries,  a  fact  which  is  due  chiefly  to  the 
scarcity  of  timber. 

143 


i44      ELEMENTARY  INDUSTRIAL  ARTS 

Three  materials  are  used  in  the  making  of 
concrete:  (i)  the  matrix,  or  binding  material, 
which  is  generally  portland  cement,  so  named 
by  its  originator,  Joseph  Aspdin  (1824)  of  Leeds, 
England,  because  of  its  resemblance  to  the  cliffs 
of  Portland,  England;  (2)  the  aggregate,  which 


Courtesy  of  Pennsylvania  Railroad 
Concrete  Bridge  over  Schuylkill  River  at  Manayunk,  Pennsylvania 

consists   of  hard  particles  such  as  broken  stone, 
gravel  and  sand;  (3)  water. 

The  principal  ingredients  of  portland  cement 
(the  matrix)  are  limestone  and  clay.  These  are 
obtained  from  rocks  which  are  mined  or  quarried 
as  the  conditions  require.  Marl  or  river  mud 
sometimes  furnishes  the  raw  materials  for  port- 
land  cement.  If  rocks  are  used  they  are  crushed 
in  a  powerful  jaw  crusher,  and  the  crushed  stone 


CEMENT  AND  CONCRETE  145 

pulverized  in  a  ball  mill,  consisting  of  a  barrel 
shaped  container  which  turns  on  an  axis.  The 
process  of  grinding  is  accomplished  by  means  of 
balls  of  steel  which  tumble  and  roll  among  the 
pieces  of  rock  as  the  barrel  revolves.  Seldom  if 
ever,  are  rocks  found  which  contain  all  the  con- 
stituents of  portland  cement;  if  lime  is  lacking 
in  the  cement  rock,  limestone  is  added  to  the 


Quantities  oF cement ,  sarvd,  and.  stone,  tn.  concrete,  mixture., 
i  part  cement,  2  parts  sand., 4  parts  crushe.d,  stoirxe.  or  qrava 
and.  the.  tesulturuy  cju.an.li.tij  of  concrete,/ 


ground  rock;  if  clay  is  lacking,  it  is  furnished  in 
the  form  of  shale,  etc. 

When  partially  ground,  the  materials  are  prop- 
erly proportioned;  and  they  are  then  thoroughly 
mixed  by  being  ground  together.  The  resulting 
fine  powder,  known  technically  as  the  raw  mix- 
ture, is  fired  in  a  rotary  cement  kiln,  a  great  tube, 
cylindric  in  form,  which  is  constructed  of  boiler 
iron  and  lined  with  fire  brick.  The  kiln  lies  in  a 
nearly  horizontal  position,  being  slightly  elevated 
at  the  receiving  end.  The  raw  mixture  enters 


146      ELEMENTARY  INDUSTRIAL  ARTS 

it  at  a  hopper,  which  is  attached  to  the  elevated 
end,  while  the  cylinder  revolves  just  as  a  pencil 
revolves  when  twirled  between  the  fingers.  Ce- 
ment kilns  are  from  six  to  ten  feet  in  diameter 


Courtesy  of  New  York  and  New  England  Cement  &•  Lime  Co. 
Steam  Shovel  in  Operation  in  Limestone  Quarry 

and  from  sixty  to  two  hundred  feet  in  length. 
They  are  revolved  by  means  of  huge  gears  which, 
extending  entirely  around  the  kiln,  mesh  with 
small  driving  gear  wheels,  while  the  tube  rests 
upon  riding  wheels  resembling  large  casters.  An 
intense  heat  of  from  two  thousand  five  hundred 


CEMENT  AND  CONCRETE  147 

to  three  thousand  degrees  Fahrenheit  is  main- 
tained in  the  kiln  by  the  burning  of  powdered 
coal  which  is  blown  into  it  at  the  lower,  or  dis- 
charging end,  by  a  forced  draft.  As  the  small 
particles  of  raw  material  gradually  roll  down 


Courtesy  of  New  York  and  New  England  Cement  &•  Li 

Crusher  Used  in  Breaking  Cement  Rock 

through  the  revolving  tube  of  the  kiln,  they 
are  burned,  or  calcined  as  the  cement  maker 
puts  it,  to  clinker,  and  are  dropped  out  at  the 
lower  end.  The  clinker  comes  out  in  the  form  of 
little  balls  which  are  about  three-eighths  of  an 
inch  in  diameter  Their  surfaces  are  rough  but 
they  are  quite  round  and  uniform  in  size. 


148      ELEMENTARY  INDUSTRIAL  ARTS 

The  clinker  is  now  stored  outside  for  from 
ten  days  to  two  weeks.  It  is  then  ground  to 
powder  once  more  in  a  ball  mill.  This  time  it 
is  ground  so  fine  that  the  powder  will  pass  through 
a  screen  with  forty  thousand  holes  or  meshes  to 


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Cement  Kilns 

the  square  inch.  This  finely  ground  powder 
is  our  finished  portland  cement  of  commerce. 
In  its  production  there  have  been  five  steps  as 
follows:  quarrying  of  raw  material,  grinding  and 
mixing  of  the  raw  material,  burning  of  this 
material. -to  clinker,  the  storage  of  the  clinker, 


CEMENT  AND  CONCRETE 


149 


and  the  grinding  of  the  clinker  to  portland  ce- 
ment. 

When  the  first  portland  cement  was  made 
in  England  along  the  banks  of  the  river  Thames, 
it  was  fired  in  a  stationary  kiln  The  making  of  a 


Ball  Mills,  Which  Grind  the  Clinker  into  Portland  Cement 

single  batch  of  cement  then  required  about 
twenty-four  days.  To-day  many  hundreds  of 
barrels  are  turned  out  by  cement  manufacturing 
companies  every  twenty-four  hours. 

The  aggregate  used  in  the  making  of  concrete 
consists   of   large   stones    and    sand.      All    stones 


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Packing  House  Showing  Storage  Bins  and  Bags  of  the  Finished  Cement 


CEMENT  AND  CONCRETE 


15* 


which  will  pass  through  a  sieve  with  four  meshes 
to  the  inch  are  considered  sand.  The  materials 
must  be  clean  and  hard.  Sand  which  is  too  fine 
or  which  contains  over  five  per  cent  of  vegetable 
matter  or  silt  will  not  produce  good  concrete. 
It  should  not  be  used. 

In   order  to   test   the   sand   and   to   determine 


water  water 


silt 


sanol 


if  it  is  clean  enough  for  use  one  may  take 
a  common  one-quart  glass  fruit  jar  and  place 
in  it  four  inches  of  the  sand  to  be  tested.  Water 
is  poured  in  until  it  reaches  to  within  three  inches 
of  the  mouth  of  the  jar.  The  jar  is  now  covered 
and  .shaken  vigorously  until  the  sand  is  entire- 
ly suspended  in  the  water.  The  mixture  is 
allowed  to  settle  until  the  water  has  cleared. 
If,  after  the  water  has  cleared,  the  layer  of  silt 
which  has  been  deposited  above  the  sand  is 
one-half  inch  thick  the  sand  is  not  fit  to  use. 


152      ELEMENTARY  INDUSTRIAL  ARTS 

Sand  containing  dirt  may  be  washed  through  a 
screen  and  the  dirt  separated  from  the  sand. 


Sand  Filling  Voids  between 
Large  Stone  (poorl 


Sand  and  Small  Stone  Mixed  with 
Large  Stone  (better"* 


Mixture  of  Graded  Stone  and  Sand  (best) 


concrete  work  will 
be  obtained  when 
various  sizes  of  sand 
and  stone  are  used. 
The  small  stones  will 
then  fit  into  and  fill 
the  voids  or  hollow 
spaces  formed  be- 
tween the  larger 
stones  and  a  compact 
or  dense  mass  will  be 
produced. 

Water  that  is  fit  to 
drink  is  best  for  con- 
crete. Moderately 
warm  water  will 
hasten  the  harden- 
ing while  extremely 
cold  water  will  re- 
tard it.  The  harden- 
ing of  concrete  is 
called  setting.  It  is 
a  chemical  process. 


Concrete  is  molded,  when  soft,  into  appropriate 
shapes  by  the  use  of  forms  which  must  be  made 
tight  enough  at  their  joints  to  prevent  the  mix- 
ture from  running  out,  as  it  is  poured  into  them 


CEMENT  AND  CONCRETE 


153 


in  a  half  liquid  state.  The  forms  should  be 
adequately  braced  and  tied  to  prevent  the  pres- 
sure of  the  materials  from  spreading  them. 
Nearly  all  forms 
are  made  from 
wood,  although 
iron  and  steel  are 
coming  to  be  used 
in  the  making  of 
forms  which  are 
to  be  used  over 
and  over  again. 
In  the  building 
of  foundations, 
trenches  are  dug 
and  the  walls  of 
earth  thus  formed 
are  often  utilized 
as  the  molding 
forms  below  the 
ground.  In  the 
making  of  con- 
crete pottery, 
small  articles,  and  statuary,  plaster  of  Paris  forms 
are  sometimes  used. 

Concrete  structures  are  often  reinforced  in 
order  to  strengthen  them;  especially  is  this  done 
where  they  must  stand  tensile  (pull)  strain. 
The  kind  of  reinforcing  and  its  placing  depends 
upon  the  shape  of  the  structure  and  the  location 


Courtesy  of  Portland  Cement  Association 
Forms  for  a  Concrete  Foundation  Wall 


Courtrsv  Joseph  Dixon  Crucille  Co. 

AN  IRRIGATION  DAM  BUILT  OF  CONCRETE 

The  Roosevelt  Dam  in  Salt  River,  near  Phoenix,  Arizona,  is  one  of 
the  most  impressive  irrigation  structures  in  the  world.  From  founda- 
tion rock  to  top  of  parapet  walls,  it  is  284  feet  high,  its  length  on  crest 
is  1080  feet,  and  its  cubical  contents  326,000  yards.  Its  base  covers 
approximately  an  acre  of  ground.  The  first  stone  was  laid  in  1896,  and 
the  structure  was  finally  completed  in  1911.  The  dam  serves  a  dual 
purpose;  first,  it  conserves  floods  and,  second,  it  develops  power.  The 
storage  reservoir  thus  created  is  one  of  the  largest  artificial  bodies  of 
water  in  the  world.  Spread  out  a  foot  deep  the  water  held  back  by 
the  dam  would  more  than  cover  the  state  of  Delaware, 


CEMENT  AND  CONCRETE 


155 


of  its  weakest  parts.  Small  structures  are  rein- 
forced by  the  imbedding  of  iron  or  steel  wires 
in  them  while  the  concrete  is  being  poured. 
For  heavier  work,  coarse  iron  bars  and  even 
steel  girders  are  used. 

Concrete    must    be    mixed    thoroughly.      The 


Courtesy  of  Portland  Cement  Association 
Mixing  Concrete  by  Hand 

purpose  of  mixing  is  to  get  the  finer  aggregate 
to  fill  the  little  voids  between  the  bits  of  coarser 
aggregate  in  order  that  a  dense  mass  may  be  pro- 
duced, and  to  provide  that  each  particle  of  aggre- 
gate shall  be  entirely  coated  over  with  a  thin  cover- 
ing of  cement  which  will  cause  it  to  adhere  to  those 
about  it.  Each  tiny  grain  of  cement  must  be 
thoroughly  wet  if  an  efficient  hardening  is  to  be 
obtained,  a  setting  which  will  bind  the  whole  mass 


156      ELEMENTARY  INDUSTRIAL  ARTS 

together  into  a  compact,  stone-like  conglomerate. 
The  setting  of  concrete  is  not  a  drying  process — 
quite  the  reverse.  Drying  must  be  prevented  until 
setting  is  thoroughly  accomplished. 

When  concrete  is  to  be  mixed  by  hand,  a  large 


Courtesy  of  Portland  Cement  Association 
Mixing  Concrete  in  a  Rotary  Batch  Mixer 

mixing  platform  built  of  planks  is  used.  The 
platform  is  constructed  with  strips  nailed  to  its 
edges  to  keep  the  liquid  mixture  from  running  off. 
The  fine  aggregate  and  the  cement  are  first  mixed 
dry  and  then  water  is  added  slowly  while  the 
mixing  is  continued.  The  coarse  aggregate  is 
then  wetted  and  is  mixed  with  the  finer  materials. 


CEMENT  AND  CONCRETE  157 

When  concrete  is  not  mixed  by  hand  the  mix- 
ing is  usually  accomplished  by  means  of  a  rotary 
batch  mixer,  a  power-driven  machine  which  whirls 
a  barrel  into  which  the  materials  are  poured 
by  means  of  a  hopper.  They  are  first  mixed 
dry  and  then  the  water  is  turned  in.  The  barrel 
is  revolved  until  all  the  materials  are  thoroughly 
combined.  The  following  are  some  of  the  stand- 
ard concrete  mixtures:*  Rich  mixture,  1:2:3,  used 
in  water  tight  tanks  and  in  structures  which 
must  be  very  strong;  standard  mixture,  1:2:4, 
used  in  machinery  foundations  and  in  floors; 
medium  mixture,  1:2^:3,  used  in  retaining  walls, 
sidewalks,**  and  similar  structures;  lean  mix- 
ture, 1 :3 :6,  used  in  heavy  walls  and  in  large 
work  generally.  Newly  poured  concrete  should 
be  protected  in  winter  against  freezing,  and  in 
summer  against  evaporation  or  drying  out  of 
the  water. 

Just  what  takes  place  when  concrete  sets  is 
not  definitely  known,  but  we  do  know  that  the 
bond  continues  to  strengthen  for  a  long  time 
after  the  concrete  has  had  its  initial  or  first  hard- 
ening. It  will  stand  a  much  heavier  load  after 
it  is  a  year  old  than  when  only  a  month  old. 

*The  first  figure  indicates  the  number  of  parts  of  cement;  the 
second,  the  number  of  parts  of  fine  aggregate;  the  third,  the  number 
of  parts  of  coarse  aggregate. 

**  Sidewalks  are  often  made  with  a  1 11^2:5,  mixture  as  a  base  and 
finished  with  a  1:2,  mixture  (i  part  of  cement  and  2  parts  of  sand). 


158      ELEMENTARY  INDUSTRIAL  ARTS 

How  long  this  gain  in  strength  continues,  is  yet 

to  be  determined  by  the  scientist. 

Lorado  Taft's   statue   of   Black  Hawk,   shown 

in    the   illustration    on    page   159,   is   one  of   the 

most  remarkable 
concrete  structures 
in  the  world.  This 
commanding  figure 
of  an  Indian  Chief 
stands  on  a  high  bluff 
overlooking  the  val- 
ley of  the  Rock  River 
in  Illinois,  former 
haunt  of  red  men. 
Mr.Taftwas  inspired 
to  create  this  colossal 
statue  by  the  desire 
to  erect  a  memorial 
which  should  com- 
memorate a  race  fast 
vanishing  from  the 
country  which  it  once 
owned  and  occupied. 
Charles  De  Garmo  has  written  the  following  in 

his  poem  On  the  Colossal  Statue  of  Black  Hawk. 

The  poem  will  help  us  to  appreciate  the  impres- 

siveness  and  beauty  of  the  statue. 

These  fertile  farms  that  broaden  on  the  sight, 
Where  now  the  households  pass  their  busy  hours, 
Were  once  wide  plains  bedecked  with  prairie  flowers, 


Making  a  Concrete  Sidewalk 


.    Photograph  by  C.  R.  Childs 
Lorado  Taft's  Statue  "Black  Hawk,"  at  Eagle's  Nest  Bluff  on 
Rock  River,  Oregon,  Illinois 


160      ELEMENTARY  INDUSTRIAL  ARTS 

Or  swept  by  autumn  fires  that  lit  the  night. 

Thou  stand'st  for  him  who  taught  his  martial  band 

In  camp,  in  ambush,  and  in  battle's  rage, 

To  hold  their  hunting-grounds  with  heavy  hand 

'Gainst  swarming  foes  who  sought  their  heritage. 

The  statue  is  of  solid  concrete  except  for  a 
vertical  shaft  which  permits  the  visitor  to  be 
elevated  to  the  figure's  folded  arms.  Here  he 
can  look  out  over  the  meadows,  river,  and  wooded 
landscape  without  being  observed  from  below. 
The  height  of  the  figure  is  fifty  feet  and  its  weight 
two  hundred  and  seventy  tons. 

In  planning  for  this  great  memorial,  Mr.  Taft 
first  made  a  six  foot  preliminary  plaster  model. 
Then  the  site  for  the  monument  was  chosen  and 
a  foundation  and  elevator  shaft  built.  Careful 
measurements  were  taken  from  the  preliminary 
model  and  transferred  to  a  framework  of  scant- 
lings built  up  around  the  elevator  shaft.  In 
this  way  the  projecting  points  on  the  surface  of 
the  large  figure  were  fixed  as  by  a  skeleton.  But 
it  must  be  remembered  that  in  this  instance 
the  skeleton  was  outside  of  the  figure  rather 
than  within.  The  elevator  shaft  only  was  to 
remain  within. 

The  points  of  the  skeleton  were  connected  by 
stretching  wire  netting  over  the  timbers.  Burlap 
was  nailed  over  this  and  plaster  of  Paris  was  finally 
spread  inside  the  burlap  covering  to  make  it 

*De  Garmo. — Aesthetic  Education.    C.  W.  Bardeen. 


CEMENT  AND  CONCRETE 


161 


stiffen  Then  a  covering  of  plaster  of  Paris  three 
inches  in  thickness  was  built  up  outside  of  this. 
When  all  the  braces  and  timbers  had  been  removed 


Form  Partly  Removed  from  the  Face  of  the  Taft 
Statue  of  Black  Hawk 


from  the  inside  of  the  hollow  figure,  concrete  was 
poured  into  the  form  and  around  the  elevator 
shaft  until  the  entire  figure  was  cast.  Then  the 
outside  form  was  removed. 

It    took    two    summers    to    erect    the    statue. 
Five   hundred    barrels   of   portland   cement   were 


162      ELEMENTARY  INDUSTRIAL  ARTS 

used.     The  concrete  was  taken  up  in  the  center 
in  an  elevator  operated  by  a  motor  and  windlass. 


Removing  the  Form  from  the  Body  of  the  Taft 
Statue  of  Black  Hawk 

I 

THE  MAKING  OF  A  SMALL  CONCRETE  Box 

In  the  making  of  a  rectangular  box  from 
cement  mortar,* similar  to  those  shown  on  page  163, 
the  following  steps  are  observed : 

(i)  Determine    the    use    for    the    box    and    its 

*  Because  of  the  small  size  of  the  box,  coarse  aggregate  is  not  used. 
The  mixture  is,  technically  speaking,  mortar  rather  than  concrete. 


CEMENT  AND  CONCRETE  163 

dimensions.     No  dimension  shall  exceed  5  inches. 
The  walls  and  bottom  will  be  I  inch  thick.* 

(2)  Make  a  working  drawing  of  the  box,  rep- 
resenting three  views.     (See  page  164.) 

(3)  When   the  box  is  cast  in  concrete  it  will 
be  necessary  to  use  a  clay  core  to   provide  for 
the   shape   of   the   inside   of   the   box.      Make   a 


FINISHED  BOXES  W!TH  COVERS 
These  boxes  have  walls  but  one-fourth  inch  thick. 

working  drawing  of  this  core,  using  the  inside 
dimensions  of  the  box  as  dimensions  for  the 
core.  (See  page  165.) 

(4)  Compute  in  cubic  inches  the  total  volume 
of  the  box,  solid. 

(5)  Compute  the  volume  of  the  core. 

(6)  Find    the    difference    between    these    two 

*  The  walls  shown  in  the  illustrations  are  all  %  in.  thick  rather  than  I 
in.  as  given  in  the  directions.  The  dimensions  are  given  in  the  text  as 
I  in.  in  order  to  simplify  the  construction. 


164      ELEMENTARY  INDUSTRIAL  ARTS 

quantities,    which    will    give    the    cubic    content 
of  the  walls  and  bottom  of  the  box. 

(7)  Allowing  ]/2   of  this  volume  for  loss  when 
the  materials  are  mixed   (the  cement  filling  the 


- 

1  CONCRETE: 
BOX 

1 

- 

' 

J 

11 
1  1 

\ 

voids    between    the    grains    of    sand),    determine 
the  number  of  cubic  inches  of  material  needed. 

(8)  4  parts  of  cement  will  be  used  to  2  parts 
of  sand.*  How  much  cement  will  be  used? 
How  much  sand? 

*  White  portland  cement  and  marble  dust  may  be  substituted  for 
these  materials  if  the  marble  dust  can  be  obtained  from  the  dealer. 
Boxes  made  with  the  marble  are  more  attractive  than  those  made  with 
sand. 


CEMENT  AND  CONCRETE 


165 


(9)  Make  core  of  moist  clay  or  of   modeling 
wax. 

(10)  The    box   will    be    cast    in    an    inverted 
position  with    the    mouth   down.    Place  the  core 
on   a  piece  of  board,   putting  a  sheet  of  paper 
(waxed  or  stencil  paper  is  best),  under  the  clay  to 


CLAY  CORE. 

USED  IN  CASTING 

CONCRETE.  BOX 


prevent  the  concrete  from  sticking  and  the  wooden 
board  from  warping. 

(n)  Prepare  the  outer  walls  of  the  form, 
building  them  of  clay  or  modeling  wax  about  one 
inch  in  thickness,  leaving  a  full  one  inch  between 
the  core  and  the  walls,  carrying  the  walls  up  a 
little  over  I  inch  above  the  top  of  the  core  in 


166      ELEMENTARY  INDUSTRIAL  ARTS 

order    to    provide    for    the    bottom    of    the    box. 
(See  illustration.) 

(12)  Construct  a  measure  in  the  form  of  a  I 
inch  paper  cube,  for  cubic  measure.  Use  heavy 
paper  and  provide  laps  for  gluing. 


Building  Outside  Form  Walls 

(13)  Measure  out  the  cement  and  sand,   plac- 
ing  these   materials   in   a  shallow  dish.      (A   pie 
tin  makes  a  good  mixing  pan.) 

(14)  Mix  the  materials  dry,   and  then  slowly 
add    water    while    mixing    until    the    mixture    is 
just  thin  enough  to  pour.     A  broad  knife  (putty 
knife  or  a  spatula)  is  a  good  tool  for  mixing. 


CEMENT  AND  CONCRETE  167 

(15)  Strengthen  the  clay  form  by  piling  clay 
about  it  on  the  outside  and  by  winding  and  tying  a 
string  around  the  form. 

(16)  Pour  the  concrete  mixture  into  the  form, 


Pouring  Cement  Mortar  into  the  Clay  Form 

over  the  core,  being  careful  to  avoid  air  bubbles. 
(See  illustration.) 

(17)  Tamp   with    knife,    being   careful    not    to 
disturb  the  core. 

(18)  Place  long  wire  nails  across   the  core  in 
order  to  reinforce  the  box  at  the  bottom.     Do 
not   allow   the   nails   to   project   to   within   more 
than  ^4  inch  of  the  form  walls. 


168      ELEMENTARY  INDUSTRIAL  ARTS 

(19)  Put  away  to  set.  The  cement  will  begin 
to  harden  within  half  an  hour.  Damp  cloths 
should  be  thrown  over  the  form  at  the  end  of  an 
hour  from  the  time  of  pouring;  this  will  prevent 
the  evaporation  of  the  water  and  will  thus  facili- 


Removing  the  Clay  Form 

tate  setting.     The  form  should  not  be  disturbed 
until  at  least  two  days  have  elapsed. 

(20)  Carefully   remove   outside  clay  form  (See 
illustration),  and  dig  out  the  clay  core. 

(21)  Smooth   the  outside  of  the  concrete  box 
by  rubbing  it  over  a   piece  of  No.  3  sandpaper 
spread   flat   on   the   table,    being   careful   not   to 
break  the  box  as  it  is  still  quite  soft. 

(22)  Make   on    paper,    using    pencil,    a   simple 


CEMENT  AND  CONCRETE  169 

border  design  in  line,  adapting  it  to  the  purpose 
oJ  decoration. 

(23)  Scratch  this  design  upon  the  box  with  a 
sharp  wire  nail. 

(24)  Place    the    completed    box    in    a    pail    of 
water  to  become  as  hard  as  a  rock.     The  more 
time  allowed  for  this  process,   the  better.    Four 
days,  however,  will  be  found  sufficient. 

(25)  Remove  the  box  from  the  water. 

(26)  Drain  the  water  out  of  it  and  allow  all 
moisture  to  dry  out  of  the  walls  and  bottom. 

(27)  Paint    the    box,    if    desired,    with    Toch's 
cement  filler  or  with  any  other  suitable  varnish 
for  concrete  structures.    If  a  dull  finish  is  desired, 
the  hard  varnish  may  be  sanded  with  No.  oo  sand- 
paper. 

The  following  is  given  as  an  example  of  the  com- 
putation of  materials: 
Dimensions  of  box,  5  in.  x  4  in.  x  3  in. 
Dimensions  of  core,  3  in.  x  2  in.  x  2  in. 

(1)  Volume  of  box  (solid)   =5x4x3x1  cu.  in. 

=  60  cu.  in. 

(2)  Volume  of  core  =3x2x2x1  cu.  in.  =  12 

cu.  in. 

(3)  Number  of  cu.  in.  in  the  walls  and  bottom  = 

60  cu.  in.   -  12  cu.  in.  =  48  cu.  in. 

(4)  Amount  to  add   for  loss  when  mixing    =  ^ 

x  48  cu.  in.   =  24  cu.  in. 

(5)  Total  amount  (by  volume)  of  materials  needed 

=  48  cu.  in.  +  24  cu.  in.  =  72  cu.  in. 


170      ELEMENTARY  INDUSTRIAL  ARTS 

(6)  A  mixture  of  4:2  (6  parts)  will  be  used. 

(7)  Amount  of  cement  necessary  =   4/6  x  72  cu. 

in.  or  48  cu.  in. 

(8)  Amount  of  sand  necessary  =  2/6  x  72  cu.   in. 

or  24  cu.  in. 

It  will  be  noticed  that  the  boxes  shown  on 
page  163  have  covers.  These  were  made  ac- 
cording to  the  following  method.  After  the  box 
had  been  cast,  the  clay  core  was  again  placed  in  it. 
This  core  however  did  not  extend  quite  to  the 
brim  of  the  box  but  was  allowed  to  reach  only 
to  within  y&  inch  of  the  brim.  The  box  was  then 
placed,  brim  up,  on  the  table  with  the  core  in  it. 
Oiled  paper  was  wrapped  tightly  around  the  box 
on  the  outside  and  creased  at  the  corners.  String 
was  wound  around  this  oiled  paper  as  it  was  wound 
around  the  clay  form  before.  The  brim  of  the 
box  was  covered  with  a  thin  layer  of  clay,  and 
clearance  for  the  removal  of  the  cover  was  al- 
lowed on  the  inside  of  the  box  by  making  the 
clay  covering  thicker  as  it  approached  the  core. 
A  mixture  of  cement  and  sand  was  poured  into 
the  box,  being  allowed  to  extend  up  into  the 
waxed  paper  form  to  the  desired  thickness  of  the 
cover.  The  newly  poured  cement  mortar  was 
then  allowed  several  days  to  set.  The  cover 
was  removed  by  carefully  tapping  the  blade 
of  a  knife  between  it  and  the  box.  (The  edge  of 
the  knife  must  extend  the  entire  length  of  the 
box  and  the  cover  must  be  quite  hard  before  this 


CEMENT  AND  CONCRETE  171 

is  attempted.)  Box  and  cover  must  be  placed 
under  water  for  the  final  hardening.  If  oiled  paper 
is  not  available  the  making  of  a  cover  may  be 
accomplished  by  the  use  of  an  outside  form  of  clay. 

II 

THE  MAKING  OF  A  CEMENT  MORTAR  TILE 

Eight  steps  in  the  making  of  the  tile  are  shown 
on  page  172.  It  may  not  be  convenient  to  make 
this  tile  in  the  classroom.  The  description  will 
be  interesting  even  if  the  directions  are  followed 
only  in  the  imagination  of  the  reader. 

A  design  is  first  drawn  in  pencil  on  a  piece  of 
squared  paper,  in  this  case  5  in.  x  5  in.  as  shown 
in  I  on  page  172. 

The  form  (Page  172,  2)  is  a  shallow  square 
box.  Five  pieces  of  ^  inch  stock,  soft  wood,  are 
required  in  the  making  of  it.  White  pine  is 
recommended  for  work  of  this  kind.  One  piece 
^  in.  x  5  in.  x  5  in.  is  needed  for  the  bottom  of 
the  form;  two  pieces  ^  in.  x  2  in.  x  5  in.,  for  two 
sides;  and  two  ^  in.  x  2  in.  x  6^4  in.  for  the  other 
two  sides.  As  soon  as  the  pieces  are  cut  to  size 
and  squared,  they  are  oiled  with  linseed  oil  that 
they  may  the  better  withstand  moisture.  The 
form  may  be  assembled  with  nails  or  with  nails 
and  screws.  All  nails  are  driven  to  within  about 
y§>  inch  of  their  heads  that  they  may  be  drawn 
out  easily  after  the  cement  has  set.  When  both 
screws  and  nails  are  used,  the  screws  will  be 


rolling  clavf  to  $" 
thickness  and.  markinq 
square.  5  x  5  to  place  in. 
Kollow  form. 


©deslqn  traced  on. 
damp  clay  with, 
blunt  pointed  pencil 


©digqtnq  out  patter 
for 


tkatwi     allow 
raised  part  of  design 


n       ©flowinq  a  dark. 


colored.  canvet-Lt 
for 


jJcerncnt  base  placed.  ©tile,  with  inlay 

in  form  and  covered  allowed  to  harden, 

with  light  colored,  and.  xi%ade,  smooth 

cement  with  car  corundum 


II" 


Suqq estiva  dWqns 

Tha  making  oPa.  cement  tile. 


n=n 


CEMENT  AND  CONCRETE  173 

placed  in  the  side  grain  of  the  wood,   the  nails 
in  the  end  grain. 

With  this  box-like  form,  a  flat  tile  5  in.  x  5  in. 
x  iy&  in.  could  be  cast.  But  if  a  decorated  tile 
is  desired,  provision  must  be  made  in  the  form 
for  the  decoration.  This  might  be  worked  out 
by  carving  the  bottom  of  the  wooden  form. 
This  process  would  not  only  be  too  difficult, 
but  would  also  require  a  great  deal  of  time.  It 
is  easier  to  use  a  layer  of  clay  in  the  bottom 
of  the  form,  as  damp  clay  can  be  readily  carved 
or  molded.  The  clay  is  prepared  in  a  sheet  ^ 
of  an  inch  in  thickness,  thus  reducing  the  thick- 
ness of  the  layer,  which  it  is  possible  to  pour  into 
the  form  from  iy&  inches  to  ^  of  an  inch,  or, 
expressed  arithmetically,  i^  in.  —  ^  in.  =  ^  in. 
The  ^i  inch  slab  of  clay  may  be  made  easily  and 
quickly  by  the  use  of  a  rolling  pin.  Two  ^  inch 
strips  about  I  inch  wide  are  nailed  to  a  board.  These 
are  placed  parallel  to  each  other  and  about  6  inches 
apart.  A  damp  cloth  is  spread  over  the  board  and 
strips.  A  ball  of  clay  is  placed  upon  the  damp  cloth 
and  is  first  pressed  with  the  hands  and  then  rolled 
to  the  required  thickness,  the  ^  inch  strips  acting 
as  guides.  When  rolling  the  clay  a  damp  cloth 
is  placed  between  the  clay  and  the  rolling  pin 
to  prevent  the  clay  from  sticking  to  the  rolling 
pin  (Page  172,  3.)  When  the  slab  of  clay  is  ready, 
a  5  inch  square  is  marked  upon  it  by  inverting 
the  wooden  form  and  impressing  the  form  into 


174      ELEMENTARY  INDUSTRIAL  ARTS 

the  clay.  The  clay  square  is  then  cut  out  with  a 
knife  and  placed  in  the  bottom  of  the  form. 
The  5  inch  paper  square  upon  which  the  design 
is  drawn,  having  been  cut  from  the  squared 
paper,  is  now  placed  in  the  form  upon  the  sheet 
of  damp  clay.  A  pencil  with  a  blunt  point  is 
used  to  trace  the  design  which  is  impressed 
into  the  clay  as  shown  in  4  on  page  172. 

Teacher's  Note:  If  this  problem  is  to  be  introduced  into  a  grade 
which  has  not  used  the  ordinary  woodworking  tools,  the  forms  may  be 
made  by  an  advanced  grade  for  the  lower  grade,  or  they  may  be  made  by 
the  school  carpenter.  Of  course,  it  is  best  wherever  possible  to  have  the 
forms  made  by  those  who  will  later  use  them. 

Little  canals  or  ditches  are  now  dug  into  the 
soft  damp  clay  that  the  decoration  may  be  pro- 
duced by  the  flowing  of  cement  into  these.  Dig- 
ging is  easily  accomplished  with  a  wooden  stick 
whittled  at  one  end  to  a  wedge  shape.  A  piece 
of  %  inch  dowel  rod  about  5  inches  long  makes 
an  excellent  tool  for  the  purpose.  Before  begin- 
ning to  dig,  one  must  decide  just  where  to  remove 
the  clay  and  where  not  to  remove  it.  The  first 
time  cement  is  to  be  poured  into  the  form,  the  tile 
proper  is  to  be  cast.  The  second  time,  the  cement 
is  poured  over  the  tile  proper  and  the  depressions 
are  filled,  the  inlay  being  formed.  This  must  be  con- 
sidered before  the  first  pouring.  Then,  too,  a  little 
wall  all  the  way  around  the  tile  must  be  provided 
for  in  the  making  of  the  clay  mold.  To  provide  for 
such  a  wall  the  line  around  the  outside  of  the  design 


CEMENT  AND  CONCRETE  175 

must  be  dug  out  in  the  clay  sheet.  As  soon  as  this 
has  been  done  there  will  be  no  further  difficulty  in 
deciding  which  parts  should  be  dug  out  and 
which  left.  The  ditches  are  dug  to  a  depth  of 
^4  inch  and  are  kept  as  true  as  possible  at  the 
bottom  because  the  top  of  the  finished  tile  is 
cast  in  the  bottom  of  the  form  (Page  172,  5). 
The  depth  of  these  ditches  will  add  ^4  inch  to 
the  thickness  of  the  tile,  making  it  I  inch  in 
thickness  when  finished. 

If  the  form  is  not  to  be  used  at  once  it  is  put 
away  with  a  damp  cloth  over  it  that  the  clay 
may  not  dry  out  or  shrink.  If  this  were  not 
done  the  clay  would  shrink  and  would  no  longer 
fit  the  wooden  form.  If  the  water  were  allowed 
to  dry  out,  the  clay  would  no  longer  be  fit  to  use 
to  cast  cement  on  because  it  would  absorb  water 
from  the  cement  and  prevent  the  mixture  from 
setting. 

A  color  scheme  is  now  chosen,  the  black  spots 
of  the  design  representing  a  dark  color,  the  white 
spots  a  light  color.  All  will  agree  that  the  dark 
color  looks  best  upon  the  outside  of  the  design 
to  hold  it  together.  If  the  outside  of  the  design 
is  to  be  dark,  it  follows  that  the  dark  color  is  the 
one  to  be  poured  first.  A  great  variety  of  colors 
can  be  produced  by  using  ordinary  dry  painter's 
colors,  which  may  be  obtained  from  any  paint 
or  hardware  store.  Lamp  black,  ultramarine 
blue,  yellow  ochre,  burnt  umber,  and  red  oxide 


i;6      ELEMENTARY  INDUSTRIAL  ARTS 

of  iron  are  all  good  colors.  They  should  be  mixed 
with  the  dry  cement  first.  This  mixture  is  then 
moistened  with  water.  Two  or  more  colors  may  be 
mixed  together  to  produce  new  colors.  Lamp 
black  will  serve  to  gray  the  colors.  Too  much 
color  in  proportion  to  the  amount  of  cement 
used  should  be  avoided  if  the  tile  is  to  become 
hard.  Beautiful  color  combinations  are  some- 
times chosen  from  Japanese  prints,  or  from  maga- 
zine illustrations  which  are  good  in  color.  The 
color  schemes  may  be  made  to  match  those  used 
in  the  colored  pictures.  The  dry  mixture  of  color 
and  cement  should  be  used  in  matching  the  colors.  * 
In.  order  to  increase  the  strength  of  the  tile 
it  is  well  to  reinforce  it  with  wire  screen  of  ^ 
inch  mesh.  If  this  screen  cannot  be  obtained,  ordi- 
nary wire  fly  screen  may  be  used.  After  the  first 
pouring  of  cement  into  the  form  a  square  piece  of 
screen  4^  inches  x  4^  inches  is  placed  upon  the 
soft  cement  and  is  worked  down  into  it  until  it  is 
about  y^  inch  below  the  surface.  Care  must  be 
taken  that  this  sheet  of  screen  is  equally  distant 
from  the  four  sides  of  the  form,  in  order  that  yi 
inch  may  be  allowed  all  the  way  round  for  the 
final  grinding  of  the  edges.  A  tile  reinforced  in  this 
way  should  be  many  times  as  strong  as  one  in 
which  no  reinforcing  has  been  used. 


Tiles  of  but  a  single  color  may  of  course  be  produced  by  the  same 
process  of  casting.    This  would  make  the  problem  much  simpler. 


CEMENT  AND  CONCRETE  177 

The  first  batch  of  colored  cement  (the  darker 
color)  about  as  stiff  as  a  thin  batter,  is  poured 
slowly  into  the  form  and  flows  down  into  the 
little  ditches.  Care  must  be  taken  to  break  all 
air  bubbles  which  appear  in  the  colored  cement. 
The  form  after  being  poured  full  of  cement  is 
shown  in  6,  page  172.  It  is  now  covered  with  a 
wet  cloth  to  prevent  its  drying  out.  The  cloth 
is  kept  wet  and  the  work  is  allowed  to  remain 
undisturbed  for  perhaps  three  days.  The  cement 
is  fairly  hard  at  the  end  of  twelve  hours  but 
it  is  best  to  give  it  at  least  three  days  to  harden. 
With  a  claw  hammer  the  nails  of  the  form  are 
removed  and,  if  necessary,  the  screws  are  taken  out; 
sometimes  the  tile  and  clay  will  slide  out  after 
the  two  nailed  pieces  are  removed.  Care  must  be 
taken  that  the  pressure  from  the  hammer  is  so 
applied  as  not  to  chip  or  crack  the  tile.  This  may 
be  avoided  by  prying  against  the  bottom  board  of 
the  form.  After  the  tile  with  the  clay  clinging  to  it 
is  taken  from  the  form,  the  clay  is  removed  from 
the  tile  by  breaking  off  some  of  it  from  between  the 
cement  ridges  with  the  wooden  tool  previously 
mentioned.  The  tile  is  now  washed  clean  with  a 
stiff  brush  and  appears  as  shown  in  7,  page  172. 
The  tile  is  next  placed  in  water  where  it  is  allowed 
to  remain  for  several  days,  six  or  seven  being  none 
too  long  if  this  length  of  time  can  be  allowed. 
Of  course  the  reason  for  leaving  the  tile  in  water 
is  that  the  cement  may  continue  to  grow  hard 


iy8      ELEMENTARY  INDUSTRIAL  ARTS 

until  all  chemical  action  has  ceased.  The  action  will 
cease  as  soon  as  the  water  dries  out. 

The  tile  is  now  taken  out  of  the  bath  and  the 
superfluous  water  brushed  off.  It  is  replaced 
in  the  wooden  form  while  it  is  still  wet,  this  time 
with  the  decorated  side  up.  Cement  of  the  second 
color  to  be  applied,  is  mixed  and  poured  over  the 
tile,  filling  all  the  little  ditches  (Page  172,  8). 
Care  must  be  taken  not  to  pour  any  more  cement 
than  is  needed,  because  all  superfluous  material 
will  have  to  be  ground  off  later.  The  tile  is  now 
treated  in  the  same  manner  as  before,  although 
less  time  may  be  allowed  for  the  setting. 

After  tile  and  inlay  are  both  thoroughly  hard, 
the  tile  is  ground  smooth  with  a  coarse  carborun- 
dum or  other  abrasive  stone.  It  is  placed  flat 
upon  a  board  and  is  ground  smooth  by  rotating  the 
stone.  Both  stone  and  cement  are  kept  wet,  the 
tile  being  washed  frequently  with  a  bristle  brush 
that  the  progress  of  the  grinding  may  be  observed. 
As  soon  as  all  lines  of  the  design  have  come  clear 
the  grinding  is  discontinued.  Page  172,  9,  show's 
the  finished  tile.  The  edges  are  ground  square  by 
placing  the  abrasive  stone  upon  the  board  and 
against  the  edge  of  the  tile. 


SONG  OF  THE  TURBINE  WHEEL 

Hearken  the  bluster  and  brag  of  the  mill! 
The  heart  of  the  mill  am  I, 
Doomed  to  toil  in  the  dark  until 


CEMENT  AND  CONCRETE  179 

The  springs  of  the  world  run  dry; 
With  never  a  ray  of  sun  to  cheer 
And  never  a  star  for  lamp! 
It  cries  its  song  in  the  great  World's  ear, 
I  toil  in  the  dark  and  damp. 


And  ever  the  storm  clouds  cast  their  showers 
And  the  brook  laughs  loud  in  the  sun, 
To  goad  me  on  through  the  dizzy  hours 
That  the  will  of  the  mill  be  done ! 
And  that  is  why  I  groan  at  work; 
For  deep  down  under  the  flood  I  lurk 
Where  the  icy  midnight  lingers; 
While  tinkle,  tinkle  the  waters  play, 
To  the  tune  of  a  hundred  sacks  a  day, 
All  with  their  crystal  fingers. 

Oh,  the  waters  have  such  a  rollicking  way 

And  they  taunt  me  in  my  pain ; 

"  'Tis  thou  alone  art  sad,"  they  say, 

"Thy  rusty  whine  is  vain ; 

For  the  grass  is  green  and  the  skies  are  blue 

And  a  fisherman  whistled,  as  we  came  through, 

A  careless  merry  tune; 

And  a  bevy  of  boys  were  out  with  their  noise 

In  our  flood  made  warm  with  June!" 

And  bound  as  I  am  where  the  darkness  lingers, 
I  half  forgive  their  careless  way, 
Such  soothing,  tinkling  tunes  they  play — 
All  with  their  icy  fingers. 

JOHN  G.  NEIHARDT 

From  "The  Quest";   The  Macmillan  Company. 


i8o      ELEMENTARY  INDUSTRIAL  ARTS 
EXERCISES  FOR  STUDY  AND  REVIEW 

(1)  Name  some  familiar  constructions  which  are  made 
from  concrete. 

(2)  What    three    things    are    always    used    in    making 
concrete? 

(3)  How  are  you  able  to  distinguish  sand  from  gravel? 

(4)  How  is  portland  cement  made? 

(5)  Which  do  you  prefer  as  a  building  material,  brick, 
tile,  wood,  or  concrete?    Why? 

(6)  For  what  kinds  of  work  is  concrete  preferred? 

(7)  Why  are  the  cement  and  sand  first  mixed  dry  in 
the  making  of  concrete? 

(8)  What  is  meant  by  reinforced  concrete? 

(9)  Why  do  you   think  Lorado  Taft  used  concrete  in 
making  his  statue  of  the  Indian  Chief,  Black  Hawk? 

(10)  Why  does  a  mason  need  to  be  strong  physically? 

(11)  What  proportions  of  material  are  used  in  making 
concrete  for  a  sidewalk? 


SUGGESTED    READING    ABOUT    PORTLAND    CEMENT    AND 
CONCRETE 

Bishop   and    Keller. — Industry   and    Trade    (Index   under 

Portland  Cement).    Ginn  &  Co. 
Bush  and  Bush. — Industrial  and  Applied  Art  Books,  VII. 

Atkinson,  Mentzer  &  Co. 
Chamberlain. — How  We  Are  Sheltered  (Page  139,  Artificial 

stone).    The  Macmillan  Company. 
Davison. — Concrete  Pottery  and  Garden  Furniture.     Munn 

&Co. 
Husband. — America    at     Work     (Chapter    on     Concrete). 

G.  H.  Ellis  Co. 
Portland   Cement  Association. — Concrete  in   the   Country. 

Portland  Cement  Association. 


CEMENT  AND  CONCRETE  181 

Rodgers  and  Others. — Trade  Foundations  (Index  under 
Concrete,  Concrete  Construction).  G.  M.  Jones,  Indian- 
apolis. 

Tarr  and  McMurry. — New  Geographies,  Second  Book 
(Index  under  Portland  Cement}.  The  Macmillan 
Company. 

Toothaker. — Commercial  Raw  Materials.    Ginn  &  Co. 


WHITNEY   " ~>A:  "**'.' 


Vesper  L.  George 


VII 

THE  TEXTILE  INDUSTRIES 

When  man  first  began  to  think  of  interlacing 
strands  to  form  a  mat,  he  also  thought  of  using 
various  smaller  fibers,  rudely  twisted  together, 
in  place  of  large  strands.  To  him  it  was  plain 
that  a  rope  of  twisted  fibers  has  many  advantages 
over  a  single  fiber  of  the  same  thickness.  As 
many  fibers  were  too  short  to  be  woven,  there 
was  an  obvious  advantage  in  using  many  small 
fibers  twisted  together  to  make  a  single  strand. 

In  primitive  times,  the  fibers  used  in  making 
strands  were  straightened  out  or  carded  by  hand, 
with  two  small  boards  from  which  spikes  projected, 
and  were  spun  by  pulling  them  out  and  twisting 
them  between  the  fingers.  As  it  was  difficult  to 
182 


1 84      ELEMENTARY  INDUSTRIAL  ARTS 

handle  a  mass  of  the  carded  fibers  without  dis- 
arranging them,  it  was  customary  to  wrap  them 
lightly  about  a  stick  called  a  distaff,  and  to  pre- 
vent unwinding  by  tying. 

The  process  of  spinning  fibers  with  the  fingers 
was  very   laborious.     The  spinner  would   fasten 


Carding  and  Spinning  Wool  Fiber  in  School 

the  distaff  in  her  belt  or  hold  it  under  her  arm 
and,  drawing  out  a  few  fibers  at  a  time,  she  would 
twist  them  slightly  and  fasten  them  in  a  cut  or 
cleft  in  the  end  of  a  wooden  spindle.  Then  giving 
the  spindle  a  twirl,  she  would  keep  pulling  out 
fibers,  while  the  weight  of  the  whirling  spindle 
would  stretch  and  twist  the  fibers  into  a  smooth, 


THE  TEXTILE  INDUSTRIES  185 

even  thread.  When  the  spindle  slackened  its 
whirling  and  stopped,  it  would,  if  left  alone, 
reverse  its  motion  and  untwist  the  thread.  To 
prevent  this,  the  spinner  either  gave  it  an  ad- 
ditional twirl  in  the  proper  direction,  or,  if  the 
thread  was  long  enough,  wound  it  around  the 


©  A  merican  Woolen  Co. 
Sorting  Fine  Australian  Wool 

spindle   and    again    fastened    the    string    in    the 
cleft  end. 

The  next  change  in  spinning  was  brought 
about  by  the  introduction  of  the  great  wheel. 
This  consisted  of  a  large  wooden  wheel  which 
was  attached  by  a  belt  to  a  little  wheel  and 
spindle.  The  large  wheel  was  whirled  by  hand 


i86      ELEMENTARY  INDUSTRIAL  ARTS 

or  by  means  of  a  foot  treadle.  The  operator 
of  the  great  wheel  fastened  her  distaff  of  carded 
fibers  in  her  belt  and,  pulling  out  a  few  of  the 
fibers  at  a  time,  she  twisted  them  and  fastened 
them  in  the  cleft  end  of  the  spindle.  Then  causing 


•icon  Woolen  Co. 
Wool  Scouring.    Removing  the  Dirt  and  Grease 

the  large  wheel  to  revolve,  she  fed  out  fibers  and 
pulled  her  hand  away  at  a  slight  angle  from  the 
revolving  spindle  and  nearly  in  the  direction  in 
which  the  spindle  pointed.  When  the  thread 
or  yarn  was  twisted  sufficiently,  she  stopped  the 
machine.  Then  in  order  to  keep  the  spun  thread 
from  snarling  and  untwisting,  she  wound  it  on 


THE  TEXTILE  INDUSTRIES 


187 


the  spindle.  To  do  this  she  moved  her  hand 
around  until  the  thread  was  at  a  right  angle 
with  the  spindle;  and,  slowly  turning  the  wheel, 
she  guided  the  thread  along  the  turning  spindle 
and  wound  it.  Then  she  tucked  the  end  of  the 
spun  thread  back  into  the  cleft  end  of  the  spindle, 
and,  feeding  more  fibers,  continued  the  process 


©  American  Woolen  Co. 


Carding  Wool  by  Machine 


of  spinning  and  winding  until  the  spindle  was 
full  of  spun  yarn.  Then  she  would  usually  wind 
the  yarn  off  by  means  of  a  reeling  device  into  a 
bundle,  called  a  skein.  Sometimes  the  yarn 
was  wound  on  a  shuttle  for  weaving. 

For  many  years  people  continued  to  use  such 
primitive  methods  of  making  yarn.  '  About  the 
middle  of  the  eighteenth  century  however  many 


1 88      ELEMENTARY  INDUSTRIAL  ARTS 

changes  were  introduced  in  textile  manufactur- 
ing. New  machines  completely  revolutionized 
carding  and  spinning.  The  invention  of  the 
steam  engine  made  it  possible  to  operate  the 
machines  at  a  greater  speed.  Indeed  had 
the  steam  engine  not  been  invented  it  is  not 


Courtesy  of  Cheney  Brothers  ©  Keystone  View  Company 

Reeling  Raw  Silk  from  Cocoons,  Japan 

likely  that  spinning   machinery  would   have  been 
improved  as  it  was. 

Fibers  have  to  be  prepared  before  they  are 
carded;  for  example,  cotton  must  be  ginned  and 
cleaned,  and  wool  must  be  scoured  and  oiled. 
Materials  from  various  bales  or  bundles  are 
often  thoroughly  mixed  or  blended  by  being  fed  at 


THE  TEXTILE  INDUSTRIES 


189 


the  same  time  into  a  machine.    Sometimes  gray 

and  white  fibers  are  blended  to  make  gray  cloth. 

Carding  is   done  by  machine  by  means  of  a 

slowly    revolving    cylinder    and    several    swiftly 


Courtesy  of  Cheney  Brothers  ©  Keystone  View  Company 

Rereeling  Raw  Silk  in  Japan 

turning  smaller  cylinders  arranged  about  it  and 
revolving  in  the  opposite  direction.  Each  cylinder 
is  covered  with  fine,  wire  spikes.  The  fibers  are 
passed  between  the  spikes  of  the  large  cylinder 
and  those  of  the  smaller  cylinders  (see  page  187). 
Because  of  the  invention  of  carding  machines, 


190      ELEMENTARY  INDUSTRIAL  ARTS 

which  greatly  lessened  the  work  of  preparing  fibers, 
and  on  account  of  many  inventions  in  the  weaving 
industry,  there  came  to  be  a  great  demand  for 
spun  yarn  to  keep  the  new  weaving  machines 
in  operation.  It  was  necessary  that  some  one 


©American  Woolen  Co. 
Gilling  Wool  into  Parallel  Filaments  after  Carding 

should  invent  a  machine  for  spinning  several 
strands  at  one  time.  This  invention  was  ac- 
complished in  England  where,  in  1738,  two  part- 
ners, John  Wyatt  and  Lewis  Paul,  contrived  a 
spinning  device  which  used  drawing  rolls  to  pull 
out  the  yarn,  and  a  flyer  for  twisting  the  fibers 
into  a  thread.  About  1765,  John  Hargreaves 


THE  TEXTILE  INDUSTRIES 


191 


took  out  a  patent  for  the  spinning  jenny,  a 
machine  run  by  hand  which  was  worked  much 
like  the  great  wheel.  It  could  spin  about  a  dozen 
threads  at  a  time,  but  they  were  of  a  quality  which 
could  only  be  used  for  the  weft  or  filling  threads 
in  weaving. 


©  American  Woolen  Co. 

Spinning  Wool  Fiber  by  Machine 

About  three  years  after  this  invention,  Richard 
Arkwright,  another  Englishman,  took  out  a  patent 
for  a  water  frame  or  drawing  frame.  It  had  a 
continuous  motion  and  caused  the  fibers  to  be 
drawn  out  by  two  sets  of  rolls,  running  at  different 
speeds.  Very  fine  threads  could  be  spun  on  the 
water  frame. 


INDIAN  WOMAN  WEAVING  A  BLANKET  ON  A  PRIMITIVE  LOOM 

The  Warp  Threads  are  held  in  a  vertical  position,  the  loom  frame 
being  suspended  in  the  open  air. 


THE  TEXTILE  INDUSTRIES 


193 


The  best  parts  of  these  two  machines  were 
united  in  1779  by  Samuel  Crompton,  of  Bolton. 
England,  in  the  mule  spinning  frame.  This  machine 
proved  to  be  capable  of  making  good  yarn,  which 
could  be  used  for  weft  threads  and  for  warp  or 
lengthwise  threads  alike. 

Finally  the  triumph  of  skill  in  spinning  was 
realized  in  the  invention  of  the  modern  self- 
acting  mule,  in  1830. 
When  this  inven- 
tion was  perfected, 
spinning  caught  up 
with  carding  and 
weaving,  and  the 
output  of  the  three 
industries  was  again 
balanced. 

Weaving  is  the  art 
of  interlacing  threads 
to  form  a  web.  The 
threads  which  extend 
lengthwise  of  the 
woven  fabric  are  called  warp,  while  those  that 
fill  the  fabric,  by  crossing  the  warp  threads,  are 
called  the  weft  or  filling  threads. 

The  loom  is  a  machine  for  the  weaving  of 
various  fabrics.  It  must  perform  three  different 
movements:  (i)  It  must  separate  the  warp 
threads  to  form  a  shed,  some  threads  being  raised 
while  others  are  being  depressed;  (2)  The  weft 


WEAVING  IN  SCHOOL 
Passing  the  Shuttle  through  the  Shed 


194      ELEMENTARY  INDUSTRIAL  ARTS 

thread  must  be  passed  through  the  shed  thus 
formed  by  the  warp  threads;  (3)  The  weft 
thread  must  be  pushed  tightly  against  the  grow- 
ing woven  fabric.  Weaving  consists  in  carrying 
on  these  three  operations  in  the  order  named. 

The  alternate  warp  threads  are  raised  and 
lowered  by  means  of  a  harness  frame.  In  the 
earliest  devices  used  for  weaving  there  was  no 
harness  frame  and  the  weaver  had  to  perform 
a  separate  operation  or  set  of  movements,  as  in 
sewing  or  darning,  for  every  warp  thread.  By 
the  use  of  a  harness  frame,  warp  threads  that 
are  to  pass  above  the  weft  thread  are  separated 
from  those  that  are  to  pass  below  it,  and  the 
shed  is  formed  which  enables  the  weaver  to  pass 
the  weft  thread  entirely  across  at  a  single  move- 
ment. 

Looms  were  formerly  operated  only  by  hand, 
but,  on  account  of  the  increase  in  the  cost  of 
labor,  power  looms  have  replaced  the  hand  looms. 

Weaving  was  one  of  the  first  of  the  industrial 
arts  to  be  taken  up  by  primitive  people.  The 
Chinese,  Hindus,  and  Egyptians  became  very 
proficient  in  it.  -The  people  of  the  United  States 
learned  to  weave  from  the  mother  country,  England. 

When  our  land  was  discovered,  the  American 
Indians  were  found  using  crude  looms.  The 
warp  threads  were  often  rolled  up  on  one  stick, 
while  the  finished  cloth  was  rolled  on  another. 
The  Indians  sometimes  held  their  work  vertically, 


THE  TEXTILE  INDUSTRIES  195 

fastening  one  end  of  the  warp  threads  to  the 
branch  of  a  tree.  Sometimes  the  work  was 
allowed  to  lie  horizontally  on  the  ground.  A 
long  stick  was  used  as  a  shuttle  for  passing  the 
weft  threads  through  the  shed.  Indians  may 
still  be  seen  on  some  of  the  government  reser- 
vations weaving  on  looms  differing  but  little 
from  those  of  primitive  times.  The  Indians 
make  up  in  skill  what  they  lose  by  having  such 
poor  tools  and  often  produce  beautiful  fabrics. 

All  the  arrangements  of  warp  and  weft  threads 
are  based  upon  three  primary  weaves:  the  plain, 
the  twill,  and  the  satin.  The  plain  weave  makes 
the  finest  and  strongest  of  all  fabrics.  In  this 
the  weft  thread  passes  over  one  warp  thread, 
under  the  next  and  so  on  across  the  fabric;  when 
it  starts  back  it  passes  under  those  threads  that 
it  passed  over  before  and  over  the  ones  that  it 
passed  under  before.  Only  one  harness  frame 
is  needed  to  form  the  shed.  By  using  this  form 
of  weaving  we  are  able  to  produce  the  greatest 
possible  number  of  thread  crossings  to  the  inch. 
This  insures  a  strong  and  durable  fabric. 

The  diagrams  shown  on  pages  196,  and  197, 
illustrate  the  plain,  twill  and  satin  weaves  as 
plotted  for  a  machine  loom.  The  diagrams 
together  with  their  descriptions  are  taken  from 
the  New  International  Encyclopedia.  They  will 
help  us  to  a  clearer  understanding  of  the  weaves. 
In  A  of  each  of  the  illustrations  the  horizontal 


The  Plain  Weave 


D  i 


ELEMENTARY  INDUSTRIAL  ARTS 

lines  represent  the  loom 
harness  with  the  disposition  of 
the  warp  threads;  the  weave 
is  shown  at  B  plotted  out  on 
squared  design  or  cross-section 
paper,  each  section  represent- 
ing the  crossing  of  a  warp  and 
filling  thread.  The  x  marks 
show  that  the  warp  is  above 
the  filling  at  the  points  where 
they  appear;  the  blank  sec- 
tions show  that  the  filling  is 
above  the  warp;  the  threads 
as  interlaced  are  shown  at 
C,  and  a  section  of  the  fabric 
cut  through  the  warp  is 
shown  at  D. 

When  the  twill  weave  is 
used,  the  weft  thread  passes 
under  two  warp  threads,  over 
two  warp  threads  and  so  on 
across  the  fabric;  on  its  return, 
it  goes  over  two  threads,  one 
that  it  passed  over  and  one 
that  it  passed  under  before. 
This  sort  of  fabric  is  woven 
with  four  harness  frames. 
It  has  a  stripe  in  the  weave, 
which  runs  diagonally  across 

The  Twill  Weave  the  cloth. 


THE  TEXTILE  INDUSTRIES 


197 


In  the  satin  weave,  the  weft  thread  passes 
over  one  warp  thread,  then  under  four  warp  threads 
and  so  on  across.  Upon  returning,  the  weft  thread 
passes  under  one  warp  thread,  then  over  four  warp 
threads  and  continues  just 
as  in  the  previous  trip  across, 
except  that  the  warp  threads 
passed  under  are  shifted  each 
time  two  spaces,  either  to  the 
left  or  right.  Five  harness 
frames  are  required  for  the 
simplest  satin  weaves. 

In  the  looms  used  in  in- 
dustry, we  find  that  certain 
warp  threads  are  raised  auto- 
matically in  order  that  a 
shuttle  may  pass  through 
the  shed.  The  same  warp 
threads  are  then  depressed 
and  the  shuttle  returns 
through  a  newly  formed  shed. 
Our  looms  made  in  school 
should  involve  in  their  use 

these  same  principles  if  they  are  to  make  clear  to 
us  the  movements  involved  in  weaving.  We  must 
not  only  consider  the  industrial  process  of  weav- 
ing, but  we  must  also  experience  some  of  the 
difficulties  involved  in  building  a  loom. 


The  Satin  Weave 


198      ELEMENTARY  INDUSTRIAL  ARTS 


DIRECTIONS  FOR  MAKING  A  SIMPLE  LOOM 

The    three    parts    to    be    constructed    are    the 
loom  frame,  the  harness  frame,  and  the  shuttle. 


Courtesy  of  Cheney  Brothers  ©  Keystone  View  Company 

Weaving  Silk  Tapestry  on  a  Jacquard  Loom 

Let  us  use  a  soft  wood  with  a  fine  grain  such 
as  white  pine.  Screws  are  needed  to  fasten  the 
frame  together.  Small  brads  are  used  to  key 


THE  TEXTILE  INDUSTRIES 


199 


O  American  Woolen  Co. 
Weaving  Woolen  Cloth 

the  joints  of  the  harness  frame,  and  small  brass 
rings,  in  stringing  the  harness  frame. 

THE  LOOM   FRAME 

We  shall  make  the  wooden  loom  frame  first. 


ffl 


1 


£3. 


THE  TEXTILE  INDUSTRIES  201 

The  stock  needed  may  be  ordered  cut  to  exact 
size  if  we  have  but  few  woodworking  tools. 
Two  pieces  ^  in.  x  2  in.  x  19  in.  will  be  needed 
for  the  loom  frame  ends  and  two  pieces  ^4  in.  x 
2  in.  x  24  in.  for  the  loom  frame  sides.  These 
parts  are  fastened  together  at  right  angles  at 
their  ends.  The  steps  in  construction  are  as 
follows : 

(1)  On  the  loom  end   parts,   locate  and   place 
points  for  two  screw  holes  y%  of  an  inch  from  the 
edges,  and  -Ms  of  an  inch  and  i^i  inches,  respec- 
tively, from  each  end. 

(2)  Drill  holes  entirely  through  at  these  points 
using  a  y&  inch  drill   in   a  hand  drill   or  brace. 

(3)  Place  the  loom  ends  on   top  of  the  loom 
sides  with  their  ends  even,  the  two  parts  forming 
a  right  angle. 

(4)  Drive    the    screws    through    the    holes    in 
the   loom   end   parts  with   hammer   and   using   a 
screwdriver,  fasten  the  parts  together  securely. 

(5)  Smooth  the  frame  with  No.  oo  sandpaper. 

(6)  On  each  loom  frame  end  part,   drive  two 
rows  of  ^  inch  No.    16  brads,   driving  each  to 
within   l/^  of  an  inch  of  its  head.     This  may  be 
done   accurately   by   placing   a   wooden   strip   % 
of  an  inch  thick  close  to  the  brad  being  driven 
and  driving  until  the  hammer  head  comes  down 
upon    the    wood.       (An    advertising    yard    stick 
will   answer   the   purpose.)      Place   the   brads   ]4 
inch   apart   and    arrange   the   two   rows   so   that 


202      ELEMENTARY  INDUSTRIAL  ARTS 

the  brads  in  the  inside  row  are  each  time  half 
way  between  two  brads  in  the  outside  row.  This 
is  known  technically  as  staggering  the  brads. 

THE   HARNESS   FRAME 

The  harness  frame  is  made  as  follows: 

(1)  Two    sizes   of   stock   will    be   needed;    two 
pieces  ^  in.  x  ^4  in.  x  4  in.  for  the  uprights,  and 
two  pieces  y£  in.  x  l/2  in.  x  14^  in.  for  the  horizontal 
parts. 

(2)  Measure    from    each    end    of    the    upright 
parts  on  the  same  side  ^i  of  an  inch  and  draw 
a  line  across  the  stock. 

(3)  Measure  on  these  lines  ^  of  an  inch  from 
one  edge  and  place  a  point.     Repeat  these  meas- 
urements on  each  end  of  both  the  upright  parts. 
The  points  will  be  placed   in   the  center  of  the 
stock  laterally  and  ^  of  an  inch  from  the  ends. 

(4)  Bore    ^2    inch    holes   entirely   through    the 
stock  at  these  points,  at  right  angles  to  the  sur- 
face, using  a  No.  8  spur  bit.     Be  careful  not  to 
split  the  wood.     The  holes  will  serve  as  mortises 
for  the  joints  used  in  fastening  the  uprights  and 
horizontals  together. 

(5)  Mark    off    on    the    horizontal    parts    from 
each  end,  the  width  of  one  of  the  upright  parts. 

(6)  Using  a  No.  8  Forstner  bit,  mark  a  ^2  inch 
circle  on  each  end  of  each  horizontal  part  center- 
ing the  bit  on  the  stock  and  revolving  it  back- 
wards.    In  this  way  a  circle  is  marked  accurately. 


204      ELEMENTARY  INDUSTRIAL  ARTS 

(7)  Cut  down  the  ends  of  the  horizontal  parts, 
thus  forming  cylindrical  tenons  to  fit  the  round 
mortises    in    the    uprights.      This    is    done    with 
a  sharp  knife,   cutting  to  the  lines  drawn  with 
the  pencil  and  with  the  Forstner  bit. 

(8)  Mark  a  line  lengthwise  on  one  side  of  each 
horizontal    part,    in    the    center    laterally,    and 
mark  off  on  this  line  27  points  ]/2  inch  apart. 

(9)  At  these  points  drill  }4>  inch  holes  entirely 
through  the  stock. 

(10)  Assemble    the    harness    frame    by    fitting 
the    tenons    into    the    mortises.      We    have    now 
produced    four    mortise    and    tenon  joints.      The 
joints  may  be  glued  if  desired.     The  tenons  are 
prevented    from    turning    in    their    mortises    by 
keying  with  a  ^  inch  No.  16  brad  driven  in  from 
one  side  of  the  uprights  through  each  tenon.     If 
cabinet  makers'  clamps  are  at  hand  the  harness 
frame  should  be  clamped  for  keying. 

(n)  Sand  the  harness  frame  with  No.  oo  sand- 
paper. 

STRINGING   THE  HARNESS   FRAME 

String  the  harness  frame  in  such  a  way  as  to 
place  the  ^4  inch  brass  rings  in  a  straight  line 
just  half  way  between  the  horizontals.  You 
may  work  out  your  own  system,  but  be  sure 
that  you  are  systematic.  The  rings  are  held  in 
place  by  an  auxiliary  string  stretched  half  way 
between  the  horizontals  and  tied  to  the  vertical 


THE  TEXTILE  INDUSTRIES  205 

parts.  The  rings  may  be  procured  from  a  furni- 
ture or  department  store.  They  are  known  as 
y^  inch  curtain  rings. 

STRINGING   THE  LOOM 

In  stringing  the  loom  the  harness  frame  must 
be  held  in  place  temporarily  by  tying  the  vertical 
parts  to  the  side  parts  of  the  loom  frame.  The 
warp  string  is  now  tied  to  the  outside  brad  at 
one  end  of  the  loom  frame;  then  it  proceeds 
through  the  harness  frame  passing  between  the 
harness  frame  upright  and  the  first  brass  ring 
on  the  first  trip  across,  then  on  to  the  outside 
brad  at  the  farther  end  of  the  loom,  back  through 
the  first  brass  ring  to  the  brad,  and  so  on.  When 
the  last  brad  is  reached  the  string  is  tied  securely. 

THE   SHUTTLE 

A  shuttle  may  be  made  from  an  old  wooden 
yard  stick,  or  from  strips  of  soft  wood  3/ie  in.  x 
i  in.  x  1 8  in.  An  eyelet  to  receive  the  weft 
string  is  bored  with  a  ^  inch  Forstner  bit  and 
the  shuttle  is  whittled  to  a  point.  It  is  then 
sanded. 

II 
DIRECTIONS  FOR  WEAVING  A  RUG 

(1)  Cut    the    strings    which    hold    the    harness 
frame  to  the  loom  frame. 

(2)  Unwind  about  five  yards  of  the  weft  (che- 
nille is  perhaps  the  best  material  for  this,  although 


206     ELEMENTARY   INDUSTRIAL  ARTS 

rug  yarn,  cotton  roving,  and  even  old  rags  torn 
into  jHz  inch  strips  will  answer  for  the  purpose). 
(3)  The  shuttle  is  threaded  and  the  weft  passed 
through  as  one  set  of  warp  strings  is  raised  by 
lifting  the  harness  frame. 


Rugs  Woven  in  School  on  Looms  Made  by  the  Pupils 

(4)  When    the    harness    frame    is    lowered    the 
shuttle  can  make  its  return  trip  across. 

(5)  After   each    trip   of   the   shuttle,    the   weft 
string    must    be    beaten    back    tight    against    the 


THE  TEXTILE  INDUSTRIES 


207 


growing  rug.  In  order  to  keep  the  rug  from 
pulling  in  at  the  sides  it  is  advisable  to  bring 
each  weft  thread  around  in  the  form  of  an  arc 
before  beating  it  back.  This  will  provide  for 


uundL  u>arp  about  book,  six 
times,  ujind  uoarp  over  a 
small   stx.dc  placed,  on  book. 


oi-va.  voarp  ona,half  tuuiat 


ramovo.    stick.,  toarp  m 
slip  easU,u    from,  book. 


fold,  back  on,  one.       forming  tio«Lva 


© 


attackiixcj-  tassal  bo  rug-  cut  loop  arvd  Ussel, 

AVakincj    a  t  asset 


more  slack  in  the  center  of  the  rug.  In  case  it 
pulls  in  at  the  sides  the  slack  can  be  stretched 
and  the  sides  of  the  rug  made  parallel  to  one 
another.  If  this  does  not  produce  the  desired 
results  the  weft  string  should  be  pulled  back 
about  an  inch  after  each  trip  across,  this  inch 
of  slack  weft  string  being  distributed  over  the 
center  of  the  rug.  When  it  has  been  entirely 
woven  the  rug  is  removed  from  the  loom  and  the 
warp  threads  at  either  end  tied. 


208      ELEMENTARY   INDUSTRIAL  ARTS 

TASSELS   FOR   THE   RUG 

A  fringe  of  tassels  will  make  the  rug  more 
attractive.  The  tassels  are  easily  made  by  wind- 
ing warp  string  several  (perhaps  6)  times  around 
a  small  book.  The  cord  should  be  wound  loosely 
and  the  ends  tied  together  when  the  cord  is  cut. 
It  is  well  to  wind  the  cord  around  a  small  stick 
of  wood  about  X  mcn  in  thickness  in  addition  to 
the  book  in  order  that  the  book  may  be  easily 
withdrawn  after  the  knot  has  been  tied.  When 
the  stick  is  withdrawn  the  string  will  slip  from 
the  book  readily.  Fold  the  loop  of  6  strands 
thus  formed  over  on  itself  to  make  a  smaller  loop 
of  12  strands.  This  loop  is  interlocked  on  the 
rug  where  the  first  two  warp  threads  have  been 
tied.  After  the  interlocking  is  accomplished  cut 
each  loop  and  a  tassel  will  be  formed.  Fasten 
tassels  entirely  across  both  ends  of  the  rug. 


THE  INDIAN  BLANKET 

Yonder  amidst  the  blist'ring  sands, 
The  Indian's  rude  built  hogan*  stands, 
Under  the  blue  and  flawless  sky 
'Neath  which  fair  crest  and  canyon  lie. 
Patterned  with  mystic,  strange  design — 
With  square  and  fret-work,  with  bar  and  line 
Here  on  the  loom  behold  it  grow; 
The  blanket  of  the  Navajo. 

*  A  house  of  earth  built  by  the  Navajo  Indians. 


THE  TEXTILE  INDUSTRIES  209 

Ploddingly  woven,  thread  by  thread, 

In  white  and  black,  in  gray  and  red, 

Emblems  bearing  of  life  and  death, 

The  lightning's  path,  the  storm  cloud's  breath, 

Slope  of  mountain  and  drench  of  rain, 

The  four  winds,  issue  of  peak  and  plain, 

Village,  and  journey  long  and  steep, 

The  blanket  fills  while  graze  the  sheep. 

Patient  the  swarthy  toiler  weaves; 
For  friend  and  alien  alike  achieves; 
Pictures  a  country  loved  right  well; 
Thereof  old  legends;   and  may  not  tell 
Whether  a  paleface  eye  afar 
Will  only  a  rug  regard,  bizarre, 
Or  see,  interpreting  the  lore, 
The  Painted  Desert  on  his  floor. 

EDWIN  L.  SABIN 

This  poem  is  used  by  courtesy  of  the  "Youth's  Companion." 


EXERCISES  FOR  STUDY  AND  REVIEW 

(1)  Name    four    common    textile    materials    and    two 
articles  of  clothing  which  are  made  from  each. 

(2)  What  kinds  of  wool  fibers  are  the  best  for  making 
woolen  goods? 

(3)  Tell   how  you   would   card   wool    fibers   by  hand. 
How  are  wool  fibers  carded  by  machinery? 

(4)  Why  do  most  fibers  have  to  be  spun  before  they 
can  be  woven? 

(5)  Do  you  think  silk  fiber  can  be  woven  without  first 
being  spun?  Why? 

(6)  How  was  spinning  first  done  and  how  is  it  done 
today? 


210     ELEMENTARY   INDUSTRIAL  ARTS 

(7)  Who  was  Eli  Whitney  and  what  did  he  contribute 
to  textile  manufacture?    Refer  to  the  encyclopedia. 

(8)  Describe  the  movements  of  a  simple  hand  loom. 

(9)  Give    a   brief   explanation    of   the    picture   entitled 
"Gossip,"  by  Carl  Marr. 

(10)  From   what   is    pongee  .made?     Muslin?     Linen? 
Worsted? 

(n)  What  kind  of  temperament  should  a  good  textile 
worker  possess? 


SUGGESTED  READING  ABOUT  TEXTILES 

Bush  and  Bush. — Industrial  and  Applied  Art  Books,  V, 
VI,  VII,  VIII.  Atkinson,  Mentzer  &  Company. 

Carpenter. — How  the  World  Is  Clothed.  American  Book 
Company. 

Chamberlain. — How  We  Are  Clothed.  The  Macmillan 
Company. 

Chase  and  Clow. — Stories  of  Industry,  Volume  II.  Educa- 
tional Publishing  Company. 

Earle. — Home  Life  in  Colonial  Days  (Chapter  VIII,  Flax; 
Chapter  IX,  Wool;  Chapter  X,  Handweaving;  Chapter 
XI,  Girls'  Occupations).  The  Macmillan  Company. 

Child  Life  in  Colonial  Days  (Pages  305  and  306). 

The  Macmillan  Company. 

Forman. — Stories  of  Useful  Inventions  (Chapter  IX,  The 
Loom).  The  Century  Company. 

Kinne  and  Cooley. — Shelter  and  Clothing  (Chapters  VIII, 
IX,  X,  XI,  XII).  The  Macmillan  Company. 

McGowan  and  Waite. — Textiles  and  Clothing.  The  Mac- 
millan Company. 

McMurry. — Larger  Types  of  American  Geography  (Pages 
164  and  198,  Cotton).  The  Macmillan  Company. 


THE  TEXTILE  INDUSTRIES  211 

New  International  Encyclopedia  (See  Carding,  Spinning, 
Weaving,  Cotton,  Wool,  Flax,  Silk).  Dodd,  Mead 
&  Company. 

Snow  and  Froehlich. — Industrial  Art  Text  Books,  V,  VI, 
VII,  VIII.  The  Prang  Company. 

Tarr  and  McMurry. — New  Geographies,  Second  Book 
(Index  under  Cotton,  Dyewoods,  Fiber  Products,  Flax, 
Hemp,  Lace  Making,  Linen  Manufacture,  Rugs,  Silk 
Industry,  Textile  Manufactures,  Wool).  The  Macmillan 
Company. 

Tolman. — Around  the  World  (Pages  35  and  180,  Wool). 
Silver,  Burdett  &  Co. 

Toothaker. — Commercial  Raw  Materials.     Ginn  &  Co. 

Walton. — The  Story  of  Textiles.    John  S.  Lawrence,  Boston. 

Wells. — How  the  Present  Came  from  the  Past,  Book  Two 
(Index  under  Flax,  Cotton,  Linen  Cloth,  Loom,  Rugs, 
Spinning,  Textiles,  Weaving). 

Wilkinson. — The  Story  of  the  Cotton  Plant.  D.  Appleton 
&Co. 

Williams. — How  It  Is  Made  (Chapters  X  and  XI).  Thomas 
Nelson  and  Sons. 

Woolman  and  McGowan. — Textiles.  The  Macmillan  Com- 
pany. 


rtesy  of  American  Telephone  &•  Telegraph  Co. 


VIII 

COPPER 

Copper  and  its  alloys  are  the  first  metals  of 
which  we  find  mention  made  in  history,  and  there 
are  numerous  objects  made  of  copper  or  its  alloys 
in  existence  to-day  that  archeologists  claim  date 
back  to  three  thousand  years  before  the  time  of 
Christ.  But  of  the  modern  important  producing 
fields  only  those  of  Spain,  Germany,  and  Japan 
have  a  history  that  began  earlier  than  1835. 

The  first  copper  discovered  in  the  United 
States  was  found  in  Massachusetts  in  the  year 
1632.  In  1709,  a  company  was  organized  in 
Granby,  Connecticut,  for  the  purpose  of  working 
the  Simsbury  mine,  but  only  a  small  amount 
of  copper  was  taken  from  this  mine.  Work  was 


2i4     ELEMENTARY   INDUSTRIAL  ARTS 

started  on  the  copper  deposits  of  New  Jersey 
in  1719.  The  mines  in  Vermont,  opened  in  the 
eighteenth  century,  were  the  principal  source  of 
American  production  until  the  opening  of  those 
in  the  Lake  Superior  region  in  1884. 

Jesuit  missionaries  discovered  the  Lake  Supe- 
rior deposits  in  the  latter  part  of  the  sixteenth 
century.  An  English  company  was  formed  and 
the  mines  on  the  Ontanagon  River  were  first 
opened  in  1771,  but  the  workmen  were  killed  in 
an  accident  and  the  mine  was  abandoned.  Cop- 
per mining  was  begun  in  Tennessee  in  1850, 
neglected  during  the  Civil  War,  and  resumed 
in  1890. 

Serious  copper  mining  in  the  United  States 
dates  from  1884  with  the  production  of  a  few 
tons  of  black  ore,  taken  from  a  mine  at  Copper 
Harbor,  Michigan.  The  beginnings  of  the  Lake 
Superior  copper  industry  were  crude,  indeed, 
but  the  growth  was  steady  from  the  start,  and 
within  twenty  years  these  mines  became  the 
most  important  producers  in  the  country,  and 
second  only  to  those  of  Chile.  The  existence  of 
the  rich  copper  fields  of  the  Lake  Superior  dis- 
trict was  known  to  the  American  Indians,  and 
it  seems  certain  that  these  mines  have  been 
worked  by  a  prehistoric  race. 

The  United  States  produces  more  copper  at 
the  present  time  than  any  other  country.  The 
total  amount  produced  in  the  United  States 


COPPER  215 

during  the  year  1911  was  1,090,000,000  pounds. 
This  was  at  that  time  about  sixty-five  per  cent 
of  the  total  amount  produced  in  the  entire  world 
during  that  year. 

Montana  is  now  the  largest  copper  producing 
area  in  the  world.  Copper  was  first  procured  there 
in  1882.  It  was  found  in  Arizona  as  early  as  1872. 

There  are  three  general  methods  of  extracting 
copper  from  its  ores:  the  dry,  wet,  and  elec- 
trolytic methods.  The  wet  method  is  used  the 
least  of  the  three.  It  consists  in  placing  the 
ores  in  an  acid  solution  to  dissolve  the  copper, 
which  is  then  precipitated  or  settled  to  the  bottom 
of  the  tank  by  the  addition  of  suitable  materials 
called  precipitants.  The  dry  method  is  the  one 
generally  used  for  reducing  or  refining  the  ore, 
especially  when  it  is  rich  in  copper.  The  method 
consists  of  two  operations:  first,  roasting  the 
ores;  second,  smelting  the  roasted  ore  in  a  blast 
furnace. 

The  ore  is  first  heap  roasted  out  of  doors,  the 
fuel  being  wood.  One  cord  of  wood  is  all  that  is 
needed  to  roast  forty  tons  of  ore.  The  wood  is 
piled  so  as  to  form  flues  through  the  ore.  The 
burning  wood  releases  and  sets  fire  to  the  sulphur 
of  the  ore  which  in  turn  burns  and  releases  still 
more  sulphur.  The  roasting  pile  will  burn  for 
several  weeks. 

The  smelting  of  copper  ore  in  a  blast  furnace 
is  the  process  of  reducing  the  copper  from  its 


216      ELEMENTARY   INDUSTRIAL  ARTS 

ores  by  subjecting  them  to  an  intense  heat  in  a 
blast  furnace  called  a  cupola.  Cupolas  vary  in 
inside  diameter  from  twenty- two  to  one  hundred 
inches.  They  are  cylindric  for  a  portion  of  their 
height  and  then  taper  to  a  cone  to  form  the 
chimney.  At  the  bottom  are  holes  for  raking 
out  the  cinders,  and  a  tap-hole  through  which 
the  molten  metal  is  withdrawn.  The  metal  is 
run  into  ladles  from  which  it  is  poured  into  the 
molds.  Coke  is  the  fuel  used,  and  the  heat  is 
obtained  by  turning  into  the  cupola  a  blast  of 
air  heated  to  about  eight  hundred  degrees  Fahren- 
heit. The  largest  blast  furnace  in  this  country 
is  that  at  the  Washoe  Works  of  the  Anaconda 
Mine  in  Montana.  It  is  eighty  feet  long,  and 
has  a  capacity  of  two  thousand  seven  hundred 
tons  of  ore  a  day. 

The  Bessemer  converter  is  a  type  of  blast 
furnace  that  is  also  used  in  the  smelting  of  copper 
ores.  These  converters  are  cylindrical  shells, 
made  of  boiler  plate  steel,  usually  about  four 
feet  in  diameter  and  ten  feet  high.  The  shells  are 
mounted  on  trunnions  with  a  tilting  device  for 
emptying  the  charge.  Air  is  blown  through 
the  melting  ore.  The  condition  of  the  ore  is 
judged  by  the  color  of  the  flames  issuing  from 
the  top  of  the  converter.  Fifteen  tons  of  ore  can 
be  converted  to  a  metallic  state  in  about  one 
hour  by  this  method.  The  resulting  metal  is 
known  as  blister  copper. 


COPPER  217 

When  an  especially  pure  product  is  desired, 
or  when  the  ore  is  known  to  contain  a  consider- 
able percentage  of  gold  and  silver  (as  is  often 
the  case),  the  electrolytic  method  is  used.  This 
method  consists  of  attaching  a  thick  plate  of 


Courtesy  of  Anaconda  Copper  Mining  Company 

Converting  Matte  into  Copper  in  a  Bessemer  Converter 

blister  copper  called  the  anode,  weighing  about 
two  hundred  pounds,  to  the  positive  pole  of  a 
dynamo,  and  a  thin  sheet  of  copper,  called  the 
cathode,  to  the  negative  pole.  These  plates  are 
placed  in  an  acid  solution,  and  an  electric  cur- 
rent is  passed  from  the  anode  through  the  liquid 
to  the  cathode.  This  dissolves  the  anode,  which 


218     ELEMENTARY   INDUSTRIAL  ARTS 

is  deposited  upon  the  cathode,  the  gold  and 
silver  falling  to  the  bottom  of  the  solution.  The 
copper  deposited  upon  the  cathode  is  pure  and 


Courtesy  of  Anaconda  Copper  Mining  Cent f any 
Casting  Copper  in  Anode  Melds 

the  precious  metals  at  the  bottom  of  the  solution 
are  recovered  by  the  use  of  mercury  and  acids. 
The  metals  that  drop  to  the  bottom  of  the  solu- 
tion usually  consist  of  silver,  a  little  gold,  and 
arsenic;  the  balance  is  made  up  of  lead  and  im- 
purities. The  materials  used  in  this  process 
are  sulphuric  acid,  bluestone,  water,  and  a  very 


COPPER 


219 


small  quantity  of  salt.  The  solution  is  contained 
in  large  wooden  tanks  lined  inside  with  lead  and 
painted  with  tar.  Electrolytic  refining  is  cheap, 
and  the  bulk  of  the  world's  copper  is  treated  by 
this  method.  The  copper  thus  produced  averages 
99-93  Per  cent  pure. 


Courtesy  of  Anaconda  Copper  Mining  Company 
Electrolytic  Copper  Refining  in  Montana 

Copper  is  ductile  and  may  be  drawn  into  fine  wire 
or  rolled  into  thin  foil  one  two-hundredth  of  an 
inch  thick.  It  becomes  harder  as  it  is  worked, 
or  pounded,  but  when  heated  to  about  six  hundred 
and  eight  degrees  Fahrenheit,  it  regains  its  mal- 
leability. It  may  be  thrown  into  water  while 
red  hot  and  cooled  quickly  or  it  may  be  allowed 
to  cool  in  the  air;  it  will  be  equally  soft  in  either 


220     ELEMENTARY   INDUSTRIAL  ARTS 

case.  This  process  of  softening  by  heating  and 
cooling  is  known  as  annealing. 

There  are  two  methods  of  rolling  copper  into 
sheets,  the  straight  rolling  and  the  cross  rolling 
systems.  The  straight  rolling  system  consists 
in  rolling  a  plate  of  copper  between  hardened 
steel  rolls  to  about  one-fourth  to  three-fourths 
of  an  inch  in  thickness,  cutting  it  to  the  proper 
size  for  the  desired  gauge  or  thickness  and  weight 
of  the  sheet,  then  heating  and  rolling  to  the 
desired  length.  Cross  rolling  is  much  slower 
and  more  expensive  and  it  is  being  superseded  by 
the  straight  rolling  system.  Cross  rolling  is  done 
by  rolling  the  copper  into  sheets  about  twenty- 
five  inches  wide  and  about  one-fourth  of  an  inch 
thick,  cutting  to  the  desired  weight,  and  rolling 
crosswise  to  the  desired  width. 

Copper  is  often  placed  on  the  market  in  the 
form  of  wire  bars  about  three  and  a  half  inches 
square  and  five  feet  long,  averaging  in  weight 
about  three  hundred  and  fifty  pounds.  These 
are  used  for  drawing  down  into  wires  of  various 
shapes  and  sizes. 

Some  of  the  industrial  uses  of  copper  are 

(1)  wire  for  electri-       (5)  manufacture  of 

cal  work  brass 

(2)  tubing  (6)  manufacture  of 

(3)  roofing  bronze 

(4)  utensils  (7)  paint  coloring 
Perhaps  the  most  important  use  of  copper  is 


COPPER  221 

in  the  manufacture  of  wire  for  electrical  work. 
Because  of  its  high  conductive  quality  it  is  es- 
pecially well  suited  for  the  transmission  of 
electrical  current  and  in  this  electrical  age  the 
amount  which  is  thus  used  is  enormous.  In  1911 
in  the  United  States  alone  about  731,000,000 
pounds,  or  practically  half  the  total  amount 
cast,  was  cast  in  the  form  of  wire  bars.  These 
are  sent  through  a  number  of  rollers,  each  set 
reducing  the  width  and  thickness  of  the  bar  and 
increasing  its  length  until  the  gauge  desired  is 
reached.  The  bar  to  be  reduced  to  wire  is  then 
drawn  through  a  steel  plate  which  has  many 
accurately  drilled  holes,  the  holes  being  graduated 
in  size  from  large  to  small.  The  bar  is  first 
drawn  through  the  largest  hole,  and  then  through 
smaller  and  smaller  holes  until  finally  it  is  drawn 
through  a  hole  the  diameter  of  which  is  exactly 
that  desired  for  the  finished  wire. 

The  use  of  copper  for  the  manufacture  of  tubing 
has  come  to  be  quite  extensive,  due  chiefly  to 
the  increased  use  of  copper  tubing  in  finer  en- 
gineering work,  and  in  the  laboratory.  Copper 
tubing  in  various  kinds  of  heating  coils,  in  steam 
gages,  and  in  oiling  systems  will  increase  in  use 
with  the  growing  use  of  these  appliances. 

Copper  is  still  used  in  the  manufacture  of  utensils 
for  the  kitchen  but  aluminum  is  rapidly  re- 
placing it  except  in  the  large  kitchens  of  hotels 
and  restaurants.  Many  beautiful  articles  are  to-day 


II 


.§ 


II 

ll 

li 


o  S 

Is. 

Is 


COPPER 


223 


made  from  copper  which  serve  both  a  useful  and 
a  decorative  purpose.  (See  illustrations  on  this 
page  and  on  pages  224  and  225.) 

The  use  of  copper  for  roofing  is  significant, 
though,  owing  to  the  expensiveness  of  this  form 
of  roofing,  its  use  is 
nothing  like  so  exten- 
sive for  the  purpose 
as  the  use  of  sheet 
iron  (often  incorrect- 
ly called  tin).  Cop- 
per has  an  advan- 
tage over  sheet  iron 
in  its  ability  to  re- 
sist effects  of  the 
weather,  a  copper 
roof  needing  no 
painting,  as  does  the 
so-called  "tin"  roof. 

Another  important 
use  of  copper  is  in 
the  manufacture  of 
the  alloys,  brass  and  bronze.  Brass,  which  is  an 
alloy  of  copper  and  zinc,  is  more  than  half  copper. 
This  large  proportion  of  copper  in  an  alloy  which 
is  used  so  extensively  is  brass  necessarily  takes  a 
great  part  of  the  annual  supply. 

Bronze  is  an  alloy  of  copper,  tin,  and  zinc,  and 
sometimes  of  lead.  Monument  bronze,  for  instance, 
contains  eighty-seven  per  cent  copper,  seven  per 


Courtesy  of  The  Roycrofters" 
A  Copper  Lamp 


224     ELEMENTARY   INDUSTRIAL  ARTS 


cent  tin,  three  per  cent  zinc,  and  three  per  cent 

lead.   Bell  metal  is  seventy-five  per  cent  copper,  and 

twenty- five  per  cent  tin. 
As  a  coloring  material  for  paints,  copper  is  found 

in  a  number  of  forms,  the  most  important  of  which 

are  verdigris  and  emerald 
green.  Verdigris  is  of  a 
bright  green  color,  in- 
clining to  blue.  Emerald 
green  is  made  from  ver- 
digris. It  is  a  brilliant 
cclor  and  very  poisonous. 
The  making  of  a  watch 
fob  constitutes  an  inter- 
esting problem  which  is 
often  carried  out  in 
schools.  Some  designs 
for  fobs  are  shown  on  page 
225.  The  sawing  of  the 
copper  is  illustrated  on 
page  226.  A  design  for  a 
sconce  is  shown  on  page 


Courtesy  of  "The  Roycrofte 

A  Copper  Vase  for  Flowers 


228. 


THE  MAKING  OF  A  COPPER  DISH 

A  problem  that  will  demonstrate  some  of  the 
characteristics  of  copper,  is  the  making  of  a  small 
pin  tray.  If  the  tray  is  to  be  a  round  one  the 
method  is  as  follows : 


COPPER 


225 


(1)  Cut   out   of    1 8  gage  soft   sheet   copper  a 
circle  %  inch  larger  in  diameter  than  the  plate 
is  to  be. 

(2)  Lap  over  the  edge  y&  inch  all  around  the 
flat  piece  of  metal,  or  beat  it  back;   that  is,  simply 


Designs  for  Fobs  Made  from  Sheet  Copper 

beat  the  edges  of  the  tray  with  a  hammer,  causing 
the  metal  to  become  somewhat  thicker  at  the 
edge.  Beat  down  the  depression  in  the  plate. 
To  do  this,  first  draw  a  line  with  compasses 
where  the  depression  is  to  start;  then  hold  the 
plate  on  the  end  of  a  block  of  wood  and  beat  it 


226     ELEMENTARY   INDUSTRIAL  ARTS 

down  over  the  edge  of  the  block  with  a  hammer, 
along  the  pencil  line. 

(3)  If  the  plate  is  to  have  a  deep  depression, 
it  will  be  necessary  to  anneal  it,  because  it  will 
become  hard  while  being  beaten.  This  is  done 
by  heating  it  to  a  red  heat  in  a  gas  or  other  flame, 
then  cooling  it  in  water.  (The  cooling  in  water 


Courtesy  of  Augustus  F.  Rose 

How  Copper  is  Sawed 

does  not  have  the  effect  of  hardening  copper  as 
it  does  steel  or  iron,  but  softens  it.) 

(4)  If  desired,  the  brim  of  the  plate  may  have 
a  border  design  etched  on  it.    The  design  is  painted 
on  with  asphaltum  varnish,   as  are  all  parts   of 
the   plate  which    are  not   to  be    etched   by   the 
acid. 

(5)  The  whole  is  placed,  when  dry,  in  a  solution 
of    I    part   nitric    acid    and   2    parts    water  in    a 
stoneware   or   glass  dish.    The  acid  will,  in  a  few 


Hammering  a  Small  Bowl  out  of  Sheet  Copper  (Early  Stage) 


Hammering  a  Large  Bowl  out  of  Sheet  Copper  (Later  Stage) 


METHOD  EMPLOYED  BY  CRAFTSMEN  IN  WORKING  UP  BOWLS  FROM 
SHEET  COPPER 


228     ELEMENTARY  INDUSTRIAL  ARTS 


minutes,  begin  to  etch  or  eat  away  the  metal  that 
\  has  been  left  bare. 

(6)     After    the    metal    has    been    etched    deep 

enough  (which  will 
take  anywhere  from 
thirty  minutes  to 
three  hours,  ac- 
cording to  the  depth 
desired),  take  the 
tray  out  of  the  acid 
and  remove  the  as- 
phaltum  varnish  by 
soaking  the  tray  for 
about  half  an  hour 
in  turpentine,  gaso- 
line, or  a  solution 
of  lye,  after  which 
the  varnish  can 
readily  be  wiped  off. 


Design  for  a  Copper  Sconce 


THE  THINKER 

Back  of  the  beating  hammer 

By  which  the  steel  is  wrought, 
Back  of  the  workshop's  clamor 

The  seeker  may  find  the  Thought, 
The  thought  that  is  ever  master 

Of  iron  and  steam  and  steel, 
That  rises  above  disaster 

And  tramples  it  under  heel! 


COPPER  229 

The  drudge  may  fret  and  tinker 

Or  labor  with  dusty  blows, 
But  back  of  him  stands  the  Thinker, 

The  clear-eyed  man  who  knows, 
For  into  each  plough  or  sabre, 

Each  piece  and  part  and  whole, 
Must  go  the  Brains  of  Labor, 

Which  gives  the  work  a  soul ! 

Back  of  the  motors  humming, 

Back  of  the  belts  that  sing; 
Back  of  the  hammers  drumming, 

Back  of  the  cranes  that  swing, 
There  is  the  eye  which  scans  them 

Watching  through  stress  and  strain, 
There  is  the  Mind  which  plans  them — 

Back  of  the  brawn,  the  Brain! 

Might  of  the  roaring  boiler, 

Force  of  the  engine's  thrust, 
Strength  of  the  sweating  toiler, 

Greatly  in  these  we  trust. 
But  back  of  them  stands  the  Schemer, 

The  Thinker  who  drives  things  through ; 
Back  of  the  Job — the  Dreamer 

Who's  making  the  dream  come  true! 

BERTON  BRALEY 

From  "Songs  of  the  Workaday  World."    George  H.  Doran  Company. 


EXERCISES  FOR  STUDY  AND  REVIEW 

(1)  Give  some  important  uses  of  copper. 

(2)  Where  are  the  copper  ore  producing  fields  in  the 
United  States? 


230     ELEMENTARY   INDUSTRIAL  ARTS 

(3)  How  is  copper  secured  from  the  ore? 

(4)  What  is  meant  by  annealing?    How  is  copper  an- 
nealed? 

(5)  How  is  copper  wire  made? 

(6)  Why  are  pennies  made  from  copper? 

(7)  What  metals  are  used  in  making  brass?    Bronze? 

(8)  How  are  bowls  and  vases  made  by  hand  from  sheet 
copper? 

(9)  How  extensive  is  the  use  made  of  copper  in  industrial 
work? 

(10)  Make  a  cut  paper  poster  design  illustrating  some 
phase  of  the  copper  industry.     You  may  use  two  colors 
and  black.     Supply  a  carefully  lettered  title. 

(n)  Explain  the  illustration,     "The  Coppersmith,"  by 
Ward. 


SUGGESTED  READING  ABOUT  COPPER 

Bishop   and    Keller. — Industry   and    Trade    (Index   under 

Copper).    Ginn  &  Co. 
Brigham  and  McFarlane. — Essentials  of  Geography,  Book 

II  (Pages  144,  322,  365).    American  Book  Company. 
Carpenter. — North   America,    Geographical   Reader    (Pages 

196  to  198).    American  Book  Company. 
Fairbanks. — Stories  of  Rocks  and   Minerals  (Pages  151  to 

154).    Educational  Publishing  Company. 
Rodgers   and    Others. —  Trade    Foundations   (Index  under 

Copper).    G.  M.  Jones,  Indianapolis. 
Rose. — Copper  Work.    The  Davis  Press. 
Tarr    and    McMurry. — New    Geographies,    Second    Book 

(Index  under   Copper,  Minerals,  and   Mining).     The 

Macmillan  Company. 
Toothaker. — Commercial  Raw  Materials.    Ginn  &  Co. 


COPPER  231 

Wells. — How  the  Present  Came  from  the  Past,  Book  Two 
(Index  under  Alloy,  Bronze,  Copper,  Saw,  Smelting 
Ores).  The  Macmillan  Company. 


Fred  Dana  Marsh 


ENGINEERING 


IX 


IRON  AND  STEEL 

Iron  exists  in  its  natural  state  as  ore,  which  is 
a  combination  of  iron  and  other  elements  in  the 
form  of  rock  or  earth.  The  modern  method  of 
mining,  known  as  open  pit  mining,  is  more  in  the 
nature  of  quarrying  than  of  mining  in  the  ordinary 
sense,  the  ore  being  scooped  from  the  surface  of 
the  ground  by  huge  steam  shovels.  Mining  in 
the  Lake  Superior  regions  is  done  by  this  method. 
The  ore  is  loaded  by  machinery  directly  upon  the 
cars  for  transportation  to  the  wharves,  or  to 
chutes  leading  to  the  waiting  boats.  When  the 
ore  is  obtained  from  the  mine  in  pieces  too  large 
for  convenient  handling,  as  is  often  the  case,  it 
is  run  through  a  crusher  before  being  delivered 
to  the  cars. 

Iron  is  extracted  from  the  ores  by  the  action 
232 


IRON  AND  STEEL 


233 


of  heat,  the  process  being  known  as  reduction. 
This  is  done  in  a  huge  furnace  known  as  a  blast 
furnace.  The  blast  furnace  is  a  tall,  slightly 
tapering  shell  made  of  iron  plate  and  lined  with 
fire  bricks.  These  shells  vary  from  twenty  to  a 


Derrick  Unloading  Ore  from  a  Eoat  at  a  Wharf 

hundred  or  more  feet  in  height,  and  are  about 
fifteen  feet  in  diameter.  The  ore,  along  with 
the  fuel  (coke)  and  a  flux  (limestone)  are  dumped 
into  the  furnace  through  a  hole  in  the  top  which 
is  closed  by  a  large  movable  lid  called  the  bell. 
The  coke  is  procured  by  burning  coal  in  furnaces 
constructed  especially  for  the  purpose.  The  flux 


234     ELEMENTARY   INDUSTRIAL  ARTS 

is  put  into  the  blast  furnace  with  the  fuel  in 
order  to  make  the  ore  melt  more  readily.  The 
charging  or  filling  of  the  furnace  is  to-day  done 
entirely  by  machinery,  the  materials  being  carried 
to  the  top  of  the  furnace  by  elevators,  and  unloaded 


Blast  Furnaces 

automatically  into  it  at  just  the  proper  time.  A 
blast  of  hot  air  blown  into  the  furnace  at  the  bottom 
passes  up  through  the  ore  and  out  at  the  top  in 
the  form  of  a  gas,  which  is  also  used  for  fuel. 
As  the  charge  descends  in  the  blast  furnace  it 
is  subjected  to  higher  and  higher  temperatures. 
Finally  the  iron  in  a  molten  state  reaches  the 
bottom  of  the  furnace  where  it  is  poured  off. 


IRON  AND  STEEL  235 

In  the  older  method  of  blast  furnace  operation, 
the  molten  iron  was  removed  through  a  tap  hole 
at  the  bottom  of  the  furnace  and  run  into  trenches 
or  molds  in  the  sand  floor  around  the  furnace, 
where  it  was  allowed  to  cool,  and  was  then  known 
as  pig  iron.  In  modern  smelting  works  the  molten 
metal  from  the  furnace  is  run  directly  into  iron 
molds  attached  to  an  endless  chain  which  carries 
the  molds  to  a  point  where  they  are  cooled  either 
by  being  sprayed  with  water  or  by  passing  through 
a  tank  of  water. 

Where  the  contents  of  the  blast  furnace  are 
to  be  converted  into  steel  at  once,  the  molten 
metal  is  carried  in  movable  tanks  directly  to  the 
steel  furnaces.  The  iron  is  poured  from  the  tanks 
into  a  mixer,  in  which  the  products  of  the  various 
furnaces  are  mixed  to  insure  uniformity  of  quality. 
From  the  mixer  the  metal  is  transferred  to  the 
Bessemer  converter.  The  converter  is  barrel  shaped 
with  the  top  open.  It  is  hung  at  the  middle. 
Molten  metal  from  the  mixer  is  poured  into  the 
converter  and  a  blast  of  cold  air  is  blown  in  at  the 
bottom  which  passes  up  through  the  molten  metal 
and  out  at  the  top  in  a  roaring  flame  which  is 
red  at  first,  but  which  gradually  changes  to  white 
and  then  to  a  weak,  light  blue.  These  changes 
of  color  indicate  changes  in  the  metal,  and  the 
appearance  of  a  certain  tint  of  blue  indicates  that 
the  conversion  into  steel  is  complete.  The  air 
blast  is  then  shut  off.  The  contents  of  the  con- 


236      ELEMENTARY   INDUSTRIAL  ARTS 

verter  are  now  drawn  off  into  molds  of  any  desired 
shape  and  size,  and  when  cooled  the  steel  is  ready 
for  shipment.  Pig  iron  is  also  converted  into  steel 
by  means  of  the  open  hearth  method  which  will 
not  be  described  here.  The  illustration  on  page 

237     shows     one 
I    method   of  sepa- 
rating   the     slag 
from  the  metal. 

In  the  larger 
steel  plants  the 
metal  is  not  al- 
lowed to  cool,  but 
is  sent  direct  to 
the  rolling  mills, 
being  drawn  off 
from  the  conver- 
ter into  ingot 
molds  (See  page 
238)  mounted  on 
small  cars.  When 
the  metal  has 

cooled  sufficiently  these  molds  are  removed  and 
the  glowing  ingots  are  ready  for  shaping  in  the 
rolling  mills. 

Rolling  mills  are  provided  with  machinery  for 
working  steel  ingots  into  rails,  bars,  plates  and 
rods,  by  repeatedly  passing  them,  while  intensely 
hot,  between  cylindric  rolls.  The  rolls  work  in 
pairs,  one  above  the  other,  and  are  of  such  shape 


A  Bessemer  Blow  in  Full  Swing 


IRON  AND  STEEL  237 

as  to  impart  the  desired  outline  to  the  metal 
passing  between  them.  (See  page  239.)  The  opera- 
tion is  continuous  through  these  pairs  of  rolls,  each 
succeeding  pair  causing  the  ingot  to  become  nar- 
rower and  longer. 


Molten  steel  is  shown  flowing  from  the  open  hearth  furnace  into 

a  ladle.    The  smaller  thimble-shaped  vessel  receives  the  slag 

which  rises  to  the  top  and  flows  over  into  it. 

Not  all  the  product  of  the  blast  furnace  goes 
to  the  Bessemer  converter  to  be  made  into  steel. 
Much  of  the  pig  iron  produced  by  the  blast 
furnaces  is  sent  to  the  foundry  where  it  is  cast 
into  machine  parts  by  the  use  of  sand  molds. 
These  machine  parts  are  said  to  be  made  of  cast  iron. 

Founding  or  metal-casting  is  the  art  of  forming 
in  sand,  by  means  of  a  pattern,  a  chamber  or  mold 


238      ELEMENTARY   INDUSTRIAL  ARTS 

of  any  given  size  and  shape,  later  to  be  filled  with 
molten  metal  which  is  allowed  to  solidify.     Iron 


Pouring  Molten  Steel  from  Ladle  into  Ingot  Melds 

founding  may  be  separated  into  three  operations: 
(i)  the  forming  of  the  mold,  (2)  the  melting  of  the 
metal,  (3)  the  pouring  of  the  metal  into  the  mold. 


IRON  AND  STEEL 


239 


The  process  of  molding  in  sand,  using  a  flask 
(See  illustration  on  page  242),  may  be  described 
as  follows :  The  lower  part  of  the  flask,  called  the 
drag,  is  filled  with  damp  sand  and  half  of  the 
pattern  imbedded  in  it.  The  upper  part  of  the 
flask,  or  cope,  is  then  placed  in  position  on  the 


Removing  the  Ingot  Molds  from  the  Steel  Ingots  as  soon  as  the 
Metal  has  Hardened 

drag,  and  sand  is  rammed  tightly  around  the  other 
half  of  the  pattern.  The  two  flasks  kept  tight 
together  are  then  turned  bottom  up,  and  the 
sand  first  loosely  placed  in  the  drag,  is  removed. 
A  thin  layer  of  dry  parting  sand  is  sprinkled  over 
the  sand  in  the  cope  and  the  drag  is  refilled 
with  sand  and  firmly  packed.  The  two  parts  are 
now  reversed  to  the  original  position  and  separated, 


240     ELEMENTARY   INDUSTRIAL  ARTS 

the  parting  sand  making  it  possible  to  separate 
the  two  bodies  of  molding  sand.  The  pattern 
is  then  removed,  any  imperfections  of  the  mold 
are  remedied  by  hand,  and  the  two  parts  are 
again  placed  together.  The  molten  metal  is 


Rolling  Steel  Ears 

poured  into  the  mold  through  suitable  passages, 
called  gates,  which  are  cut  in  the  parting  surface 
of  the  sand  from  the  edge  of  the  mold  to  a  vertical 
hole  called  a  sprue  pin  hole,  made  by  inserting 
a  tapered  wooden  pin,  called  a  sprue  pin,  in  the 
sand  when  it  was  packed  around  the  pattern.  The 
iron  is  melted  in  a  cupola,  or  foundry  furnace. 
Iron  thus  molded  is  called  cast  iron. 

Wrought  iron  can  be  produced  either  from  the 


IRON  AND  STEEL 


241 


ore  directly,  or  by  the  conversion  of  pig  iron  in 
a  puddling  furnace.  In  the  process  known  as 
puddling,  pig  iron  is  melted  and  subjected  to  a 
flame  until  the  carbon  is  burned  out.  The  iron 
is  heated  until  it  melts  into  a  thick  fluid  mass. 


Courtesy  of  The  Industrial  Arts  Magazine 
Pouring  Metal  into  the  Molds 

While  in  this  condition  it  is  thoroughly  stirred  and 
worked  by  means  of  a  long  iron  bar,  to  insure  all 
parts  of  the  iron's  being  treated.  This  working  is 
called  rabbling.  The  puddling  process  is  carried  on 
at  a  high  temperature  with  the  iron  in  a  semifluid 
state;  it  causes  most  of  the  impurities  to 


242      ELEMENTARY   INDUSTRIAL  ARTS 

be  burned  out  or  else  separated  as  slag.  When 
the  process  is  nearly  completed  the  iron  becomes 
stiffer  and  is  known  as  a  mat.  The  workman 
divides  this  into  masses  of  about  one  hundred  and 
sixty  pounds  each,  and  with  his  bar  rolls  them  into 
balls  on  the  hearth  of  the  furnace.  A  small  amount 
of  slag  will  adhere  to  the  balls  and  be  rolled  up  in 
them.  To  get  rid  of  this  slag  the  balls  are  removed 
from  the  furnace  and  passed 
through  a  squeezer,  which  is 
a  form  of  press  that  forces 
out  the  slag  and  presses  the 
iron  into  a  solid  mass,  after 
which  it  is  passed  through 
rolls  and  reduced  to  the  form 
of  bars.  It  is  then  known  as 
wrought  iron  and  is  ready  for 
shipment. 

Iron  and  steel  are  often  shaped  by  forging.  The 
blacksmith  heats  a  bar  of  wrought  iron  red  hot 
and  shapes  it  over  the  anvil  with  his  hammer. 
Horse  shoes  were  formerly  made  entirely  by  this 
method.  Nails  were  once  hand  forged,  too.  The 
modern  blacksmith  buys  his  horse  shoes  ready 
made  and  fits  them  by  reheating  and  reshaping. 
Today  nails  are  turned  out  in  thousands  by 
automatic  machines. 

Hand  forging  is  still  employed  in  repair  work 
and  whenever  small  numbers  of  forgings  of  odd 
shape  are  desired.  The  modern  blacksmith  does 


The  Flask 


IRON  AND  STEEL  243 

a  great  deal  of  his  work  on  the  trip  hammer  which 
is  operated  by  electricity  or  steam.  It  gives 
heavier  and  more  frequent  blows  than  can  be 
struck  with  the  hand  hammer  or  sledge. 

When  a  large  number  of  forgings  are  wanted,  all 
just  alike,  the  drop  forge  (see  page  244)  is  used.  The 
hot  iron  or  steel  is  pounded  into  shape  by  a  great 
hammer  which  sometimes  weighs  several  tons. 
The  hammer  drops  or  is  forced  by  steam  down 
upon  the  anvil,  upon  which  is  placed  a  die  con- 
taining a  sunken  form  of  the  desired  shape  and 
size.  The  hammer  itself  also  carries  a  similar 
sunken  form  to  provide  for  the  other  half  of  the 
object  to  be  forged.  As  the  hammer  drops,  a  bar 
of  red  hot  metal  is  inserted  between  the  two  dies. 
Usually  two  blows  are  given.  The  metal  is  then  trans- 
ferred to  a  second  machine  which  trims  off  the  pro- 
jecting edges  as  the  object  forged  is  punched  through 
another  die  containing  a  hole  the  exact  shape  of  the 
contour  of  the  forging.  Wrenches  are  drop  forged. 

As  one  approaches  a  great  steel  mill  and  hears 
almost  a  mile  away  the  powerful  blows  and  feels, 
as  he  approaches,  the  ground  beneath  him  throb 
and  quake  at  the  mighty  blows  struck  by  the  drop 
forges,  he  is  amazed  at  the  superhuman  strength 
of  these  labor  saving  Titans  contrived  by  man  to 
do  so  much  of  the  work  of  the  world. 

THE  CASTING  OF  A  PAPER  WEIGHT 
An  exercise  which  gives  an  insight  into  the  indus- 


244     ELEMENTARY   INDUSTRIAL  ARTS 

trial  processes  of  pattern  making  and  metal  casting 
is  the  making  of  a  lead  paper  weight  or  some  other 
simple  article  which  is  easily  cast  in  this  metal.  It 


Drop  Forging 

will  be  necessary  first  to  construct  a  molding  flask. 
This  consists  of  two  box-like  frames,  just  alike, 
2  inches  high,  4  inches  wide  and  6  inches  long 
(inside  dimensions),  and  a  bottom  board  y£  mcn 
thick,  6  inches  wide,  and  8  inches  long.  The  two 
frames  will  be  placed  one  on  top  of  the  other,  the 
lower  frame  resting  on  the  bottom  board.  The 


246     ELEMENTARY   INDUSTRIAL  ARTS 

upper  frame  is  the  cope  and  the  lower  frame,  the 
drag.  In  order  that  these  two  parts  of  the  flask 
shall  come  together  in  the  same  position  each  time 
it  will  be  necessary  to  provide  some  sort  of  register- 
ing device.  This  may  we  done  by  nailing  2  strips 
(about  y^.  inch  thick,  I  inch  wide,  2  inches  long)  on 
the  outside  of  the  cope  and  I  on  the  drag  at  one  end, 
so  that  the  ends  of  the  strips  at  one  end  will  project 
down  the  side  on  the  outside  of  the  drag,  and  by 
nailing  similar  strips  to  the  opposite  end  of  the 
frames.  When  the  two  parts  of  the  flask  are  brought 
together  they  must  always  be  in  such  position  that 
the  strips  projecting  from  the  cope  will  fit  over  the 
strip  fastened  to  the  drag  as  shown  on  page  247. 

A  pattern  is  now  made.  This  pattern  will  be  an 
exact  model,  in  wood,  of  the  article  to  be  cast. 
The  sides  of  the  pattern  are  tapered,  however,  the 
pattern  being  smaller  at  the  top  than  at  the  base. 
This  tapering  is  called  draft,  and  is  put  on  to  facil- 
itate drawing  the  pattern  from  the  sand,  as  will  be 
seen  later.  The  pattern  should  be  shellacked. 

The  molding  outfit  consists  of  three  parts — the 
cope,  the  drag,  and  a  board.  In  making  the  mold 
or  molding,  as  it  is  called,  the  pattern  is  placed, 
large  side  down,  on  the  board.  The  drag  is  placed 
over  and  around  it.  The  drag  is  then  filled  to  the 
top  with  damp  molding  sand,  or  other  fine  sand, 
well  tamped.  Another  board  is  placed  on  top  of 
this  and  rubbed  gently  so  as  to  make  an  even, 
compact  surface  on  the  sand.  The  drag  is  then 


pattarrx  placed  on  board,  sides  oP 
pattern,   tapered. 


dracr  turned  ovar,  pattern  exposed          pourt 


hola,  to  cavity  loft  bu  pattern. 

Casting  ofa  paper  veiqhL 


248     ELEMENTARY   INDUSTRIAL  ARTS 

turned  over  and  the  board  removed  so  that  the 
pattern  is  exposed.  The  cope,  or  upper  portion 
of  the  flask,  is  then  fitted  to  the  drag.  A  layer  of 
fine,  dry  sand,  technically  known  as  parting  sand, 
is  sprinkled  over  the  exposed  surface  of  damp  sand 
in  the  drag.  Then  the  cope  is  filled  with  the  damp 
molding  sand,  well  tamped.  The  sprue  pin  is  set 
up  in  the  sand  so  that  it  projects  into  the  sand  in 
the  drag  at  a  point  conveniently  near  to  the  posi- 
tion of  the  pattern  in  the  sand.  The  sprue  pin 
is  a  tapered  cylinder.  For  this  small  work  a  new 
stick  of  chalk  will  answer  the  purpose  very  well. 
The  sand  in  the  cope  is  packed  around  this  pin 
and  the  pin  is  then  withdrawn,  leaving  a  hole 
through  the  sand  in  the  cope  to  the  sand  in  the 
drag  and  a  little  way  into  this.  A  small  channel 
is  now  cut  from  the  end  of  the  sprue  hole  to  the 
cavity  left  by  the  pattern.  This  channel  is  called 
a  gate.  To  cut  the  channel,  it  is  necessary  to  lift 
the  cope  from  the  drag.  The  pattern  is  removed 
by  driving  lightly  into  it  a  sharpened  nail,  tack, 
or  any  other  instrument  which  may  serve  as  a 
handle  for  withdrawing  it.  It  is  now  evident 
that  unless  the  pattern  were  larger  at  the  base 
than  at  the  top  it  would  be  very  difficult  to  with- 
draw it  without  breaking  the  sides  of  the  mold 
left  by  it  in  the  sand.  To  allow  for  the  escape  of 
steam  which  will  be  formed  when  the  hot  metal 
is  poured  into  the  damp  sand  mold,  vents  are  made 
in  the  sand  of  the  cope  by  punching  a  large  nail 


IRON  AND  STEEL  249 

nearly  through  the  sand  of  the  cope.  The  cope 
and  drag  are  then  fitted  together  again  and  all 
is  ready  for  the  pouring. 

The  lead  may  be  melted  in  an  iron  pot  on  an 
ordinary  stove.  It  should  be  poured  slowly  but 
steadily  into  the  sprue  hole  until  the  latter  is 
completely  filled.  After  allowing  sufficient  time 
for  cooling,  the  casting  may  be  removed  from 
the  flask  and  the  sand  cleaned  from  it.  The  pro- 
jection of  metal  from  the  gate  may  be  removed 
by  breaking  or  sawing,  and  the  rough  place  left 
filed  smooth. 

Teacher's  Note:  For  a  project  involving  the  use  of  sheet  iron 
the  making  of  a  sugar  scoop  or  a  cup  is  most  appropriate.  A 
satisfactory  way  to  construct  such  utensils  is  to  make  use  of  empty 
fruit  or  condensed  milk  cans  which  may  easily  be  cut  to  the  desired 
shape,  and  a  handle  made  and  soldered  on  as  required.  The  making 
of  cooky  cutters  presents  another  good  field.  The  sheet  iron  needed 
for  these  articles  may  be  obtained  from  various  sorts  of  "tin"  cans 
and  boxes.  Opportunity  for  individual  expression  will  be  afforded, 
and  at  the  same  time  the  qualities  and  characteristics  of  iron  and  tin  will 
be  illustrated.  The  use  of  the  alloy  of  tin  and  lead,  viz.,  solder,  will 
be  involved  also. 

Another  excellent  problem  is  the  making  of  a  sconce  for  a  candle. 
This  is  easily  made  from  a  can.  A  handle  is  soldered  to  the  back  of 
it  and  a  receptacle  to  the  inside  for  holding  the  candle.  The  sconce 
may  be  painted  with  enamel  paint  and  decorated  with  an  interrelated 
border  pattern  in  complementary  or  analogous  colors. 


THE  FORGING  OF  THE  ANCHOR 

"Hurrah!"  they  shout,  "leap  out,  leap  out":    bang,  bang, 

the  sledges  go; 
Hurrah!   the  jetted  lightnings  are  hissing  high  and  low; 


250     ELEMENTARY   INDUSTRIAL  ARTS 

A  hailing  fount  of  fire  is  struck  at  every  squashing  blow; 

The  leathern  mail  rebounds  the  hail;  the  rattling  cinders 
strew 

The  ground  around;  at  every  bound  the  sweltering  foun- 
tains flow; 

And  thick  and  loud  the  swinking  crowd,  at  every  stroke, 
pant  "Ho!" 

Swing  in  your  strokes  in  order,  let  foot  and  hand  keep  time, 
Your  blows  make  music  sweeter  far  than  any  steeple's 

chime ! 

But  while  ye  swing  your  sledges  sing;  and  let  the  burden  be, 
The  Anchor  is  the  Anvil  King,  and  royal  craftsmen  we ; 
Strike  in,  strike  in,  the  sparks  begin  to  dull  their  rustling 

red! 
Our  hammers  ring  with  sharper  din,  our  work  will  soon  be 

sped; 

Our  anchor  soon  must  change  his  bed  of  fiery  rich  array 
For  a  hammock  at  the  roaring  bows,  or  an  oozy  couch  of 

clay: 

In  livid  and  obdurate  gloom,  he  darkens  down  at  last. 
A  shapely  one  he  is,  and  strong  as  e'er  from  cat*  was  cast. 
A  trusted  and  trustworthy  guard,  if  thou  hadst  life  like  me, 
What  pleasures  would  thy  toils  reward  beneath  the  deep 
green  sea! 

SAMUEL  FERGUSON 

In  "Choice  Readings,"   Robert  M.  Cumnock.    A.  C.  McClurg  &  Co. 


EXERCISES  FOR  STUDY  AND  REVIEW 

(1)  How  is  iron  secured  from  the  ore? 

(2)  How  is  pig  iron  made  into  steel? 

(3)  Compare   iron   and   copper   considering    (a)    color, 
(b)  weight,  (c)  hardness,  (d)  commercial  value. 

*  A  boat  employed  in  England  in  the  coal  trade. 


IRON  AND  STEEL  251 

(4)  What  is  meant  by  founding? 

(5)  What  kinds  of  iron  are  used  in  forging? 

(6)  Name  some  iron  products  which  are  made  by  forging. 
By  casting. 

(7)  Make  a  cut  paper  poster  picture  to  illustrate  some 
phase  of  the  iron  and  steel  industry.     Use  two  colors  with 
black  and  gray. 

(8)  Why  are  nails  usually  made  from  iron  and  steel? 

(9)  Make  a  list  of  iron  and  steel  products  in  and  about 
the  school  building.     Classify  these  as  iron  or  steel  and  as 
cast  or  forged. 

(10)  Discuss  the  painting,  "The  Forging  of  the  Shaft," 
by  Weir. 

(n)  Why  are  the  metal  working  trades  attractive  to 
boys  possessing  the  necessary  qualifications? 

(12)  What  opportunities  for  advancement  are  offered 
in  the  machinist's  trade? 


SUGGESTED  READING  ABOUT  IRON  AND  STEEL 

Bishop    and    Keller. — Industry   and    Trade    (Index   under 

Iron,  Iron  Industry,  Iron  Manufacture).  Ginn  &  Co. 
Carpenter. — North  America;    Geographical   Reader   (Pages 

192  to  196  and  236  to  238).    American  Book  Company. 
Fairbanks. — The  Most    Useful  Mineral,  Iron    (Pages    145 

to  150).    Educational  Publishing  Company. 
Forman. — Stories  of   Useful  Inventions  (Chapter  IV,   The 

Forge}.    The  Century  Company. 
Hood. — Iron    and    Steel    (Common    Commodities    Series). 

Isaac  Pitman  &  Sons. 
McMurry. — Larger    Types  of  American   Geography   (Page 

I35»    The  Iron  and  Steel  Business).     The  Macmillan 

Company. 
New    International    Encyclopedia    (see    Iron    and    Steel). 

Dodd,  Mead  &  Co. 


252      ELEMENTARY   INDUSTRIAL  ARTS 

Rodgers    and    Others. — Trade    Foundations    (Index   under 

Iron,  Steel).     G.  M.  Jones,  Indianapolis. 
Smith.— The  Story  of  Iron  and  Steel.     D.  Appleton  &  Co. 
Spring. — Non-technical  Chats  on  Iron  and  Steel.    Frederick 

A.  Stokes  Company. 
Tarr    and     McMurry. — New    Geographies,    Second    Book 

(Index    under    Coke,    Iron    Manufactures,    Iron   Ore, 

Minerals    and    Mining,    Steel    Manufacturing).     The 

Macmillan  Company. 

Toothaker. — Commercial  Raw  Materials.     Ginn  &  Co. 
Wells. — How  the  Present  Came  from  the  Past,  Book  Two 

(Index  under  Iron,  Metal,  Ores,  Smelting  Ores,  Steel}. 

The  Macmillan  Company. 
Williams.— How  It  Is  Made   (Chapters  XIV,  XV,   XVI, 

XVII,  XVIII).    Thomas  Nelson  and  Sons. 


X 

THE  SOAP  INDUSTRY 

It  is  likely  that  the  first  substance  used  for 
cleansing  purposes  was  the  juice  of  certain  plants. 
The  ancients  used  fuller's  earth,  a  soft  earth  sub- 
stance resembling  clay  though  it  is  not  plastic 
like  clay.  Fuller's  earth  later  came  to  be  used 
extensively  in  fulling  woolen  cloth;  that  is,  in 
cleaning  and  shrinking  it.  The  earth  was  spread 
over  the  cloth  and  stamped  and  rubbed  in  with 
the  feet.  By  this  method  of  scouring,  the  greasy 
matter  and  dirt  were  removed,  fuller's  earth  having 
the  property  of  absorbing  both  grease  and  dirt. 

It  would  seem  from  statements  made  by  the 
Roman  historian,  Pliny,  that  the  Gauls  were  the 
original  inventors  of  soap  as  we  know  it  to-day. 
Their  best  soap  product  was  a  combination  of 
goat's  fat  and  the  ashes  of  beech  wood.  The  Romans, 
after  their  invasion  of  Gaul,  introduced  the  art  of 
soap  making  into  Italy.  A  soap  maker's  shop  was 
discovered  in  the  ruins  of  Pompeii,  an  Italian  city 
253 


254     ELEMENTARY   INDUSTRIAL  ARTS 

which  was  buried  beneath  the  ashes  of  Mt.  Ve- 
suvius, in  79  A.  D.  The  ruined  shop  is  still  ex- 
hibited to  tourists. 

In  the  eighth  century,  soap  was  manufactured 
quite  extensively  in  Italy,  Spain,  and  Germany.  In 
these  countries  the  industry  was  carried  on  both 
as  a  household  art  and  as  a  trade.  Strange  to 
say,  it  was  not  introduced  into  France  until  the 
thirteenth  century,  and  yet  in  France  were  to  be 
found  conditions  most  favorable  to  the  production 
of  the  necessary  raw  materials.  The  exact  period 
in  which  soap  was  first  manufactured  in  England 
is  uncertain.  The  work  was  probably  begun  some- 
time during  the  fourteenth  century. 

Soap  making  has  passed  through  a  long  period 
of  rude  and  unscientific  development;  at  present, 
however,  it  is  commanding  the  attention  of  scien- 
tific men.  The  first  invention  of  importance 
which  led  to  its  perfecting  was  that  of  Leblanc, 
a  Frenchman,  who  discovered  a  way  of  obtaining 
soda  from  common  salt.  Rapid  advance  in  chemical 
knowledge  has  been  a  means  of  greatly  improving 
the  art  of  soap  making  in  that  many  more  saponi- 
Hable  substances  than  were  at  first  known  have 
been  introduced.  Among  these  are  oils  (olive, 
cocoanut,  fish,  palm,  and  castor)  and  other  fatty 
substances  (as  lard,  and  tallow).  The  prejudice 
men  of  scientific  ability  felt  against  entering  the 
soap  making  industry,  was  at  first  so  great  that 
until  about  sixty  years  ago  soap  makers  seldom, 


THE  SOAP  INDUSTRY 


255 


if  ever,  consulted  scientific  men.  Fortunately, 
this  prejudice  has  died  away. 

In  making  soap  to-day  a  large  kettle  is  used,  in 
which  the  contents 
can  be  boiled  by  one 
of  two  methods.  In 
one,  steam  is  blown 
directly  into  the  liq- 
uid through  a  coil  of 
pipe  that  has  numer- 
ous holes  punched 
in  it.  This  is  called 
the  open  coil  and  it 
lies  on  the  bottom 
of  the  kettle  in  the 
soap  liquid.  The  sec- 
ond method  consists 
in  passing  steam 
through  a  closed  coil. 
In  this  case  the  steam 
does  not  touch  the 
soap  liquid  but  the 
heating  of  the  liquid 
takes  'place  in  the 
same  way  as  does  the 

heating  of  the  air  in  a  room  by  a  radiator.  A 
kettle  that  will  hold  100,000  pounds  is  fifteen 
feet  in  diameter  and  twenty-one  feet  high,  but 
only  a  little  more  than  half  this  amount  of  soap 
can  be  made  in  a  kettle  of  this  size  because  con- 


A  Soap  Kettle  Nearly  Four  Stories  High 


256     ELEMENTARY   INDUSTRIAL  ARTS 

siderable  room  must  be  allowed  for  the  soap  liquid 
to  rise  as  it  is  being  boiled.  The  huge  soap  kettles 
are  usually  made  of  three-eighth  inch  iron  boiler 
plate.  Melted  fat  and  lye  are  run  into  them  and 
boiled  until  saponification  begins  to  take  place; 
that  is,  until  the  soap  material  feels  dry  and  firm 
as  it  is  tested  between  the  fingers.  It  is  salted 


Courtesy  of  Procter  &•  Gamble  Co. 

Top  Floor  of  Kettle  House 

with  common  salt,  which  causes  the  soap  to  sepa- 
rate from  the  lye  and  glycerine.  The  adding  of 
more  salt  causes  the  soap  to  rise  to  the  top  and  to 
solidify.  The  liquid  is  left  standing  in  the  kettle 
until  all  the  soap  in  it  rises  to  the  surface,  the  lye 
being  drawn  off  at  the  bottom. 

More  strong  lye  is  added  as  the  boiling  is  con- 
tinued, this  time  until  the  material  has  fully 
saponified.  The  experienced  soap  maker  knows 
by  sight  and  touch  just  when  complete  saponifica- 


Courtesy  of  Procter  &•  Gamble  Co. 

THE  SOAP  MAKER 


258     ELEMENTARY   INDUSTRIAL  ARTS 

tion  has  been  accomplished.-  (See  page  257.)  The 
material  is  again  allowed  to  stand  and  the  lye 
is  drawn  off  a  second  time.  The  soap  is  then  boiled 
with  water  and  once  more  allowed  to  settle.  In 
the  process  of  settling,  the  remaining  free  lye,  and 

the  dirt  and  other 
impurities  are 
separated  from  it. 
After  standing 
for  several  days 
duringwhich  time 
it  remains  hot 
and  liquid,  the 
material  is  fin- 
ally pumped  into 
a  crutcher  which 
consists  of  a  broad 
vertical  screw 
working  in  a  cyl- 
inder placed  in  a 
large  tank.  Here 
it  is  thoroughly 
mixed,  and  perfume,  scouring  or  other  materials 
are  added  if  desired.  The  hot  semi-liquid  soap  is 
now  drawn  off  into  rectangular  frames  which  hold 
about  one  thousand  pounds  each.  Here  it  is 
allowed  once  again  to  solidify.  After  this  final 
solidification  has  taken  place  the  sides  and  ends 
of  the  frames  are  removed  and  the  mass  of  soap 
is  cut  by  means  of  wires  into  slabs,  which  in  turn 


Filling   Frames   with    Soap   as    It    Comes 
from  the  Crutcher 


THE  SOAP  INDUSTRY 


259 


are  recut,  lengthwise  and  then  crosswise  into  the 
size  desired  for  the  commercial  bars.  The  bars  of 
soap  are  now  allowed  to  stand  on  racks,  exposed 
to  the  air,  so  that  they  may  dry  partially  and 
season.  They  are  then  pressed,  wrapped,  packed  in 


Removing  Sides  and  Ends  from  Frames 

boxes,  which  usually  hold  one  hundred  bars  each 
and  stored  in  large  storerooms. 

Tallow,  palm  oil,  and  cocoanut  oil  are  often 
used  in  making  white  soap.  Yellow  soaps  are 
made  in  the  same  way,  except  that  rosin  is  added. 
Castile  soap  is  usually  made  from  pure  olive  oil. 
The  following  list  of  the  common  soaps  is  sugges- 
tive of  the  variety  now  in  constant  use: 
I.  Toilet  Soaps 

a.    common 


260     ELEMENTARY   INDUSTRIAL  ARTS 

b.  medicated 

c.  paste 

d.  liquid 
2.    Laundry  Soaps 

a.  white 

b.  yellow 


Cutting  Soap  Slabs  into  Bars 

3.  Soap  Powders 

a.  washing 

b.  scouring 

4.  Soft  Soaps 

5.  Scouring  Cakes 

To  MAKE  FIVE  POUNDS  OF  SOAP 
(i)  Melt  in  a  pan  or  kettle  2^  pounds  of  clean 
grease  or  tallow  free  from  salt. 


THE  SOAP  INDUSTRY 


261 


(2)  Set  the  grease  aside  to  cool  and  while  it  is 
cooling  dissolve  ^  pint  of  soda  lye  (obtained  from 
any  grocery  store)  in  1^4  pints  of  cold  water.   The 
water  will  at  once  begin  to  get  hot.    Be  careful 
not  to  get  any  of 

the  lye  solution 
on  your  hands 
or  clothing. 

(3)  When    the 
lye   solution    has 
cooled    to    blood 
heat  pour  it  slow- 
ly into  the  luke- 
warm     grease. 
Pour  the  lye  into 
the  grease,  not  the 
grease    into    the 

lye,    at    the    Same  Soap  on  Racks  Going  into  Dryer 

time  stirring  until 

the  lye  and  grease  are  thoroughly  combined  and 
the  mixture  becomes  smooth  and  thick.  Do  not 
stir  too  long  or  the  grease  will  separate  from  the  lye. 

(4)  Pour  into  a  mold  or  wooden  box  lined  with 
paper  or  with  cotton  cloth. 

(5)  Cover  and  place  in  a  warm  room  for  a  day 
or  two. 

(6)  Cut  the  soap  while  still  soft  into  cakes  of 
attractive  proportions,  using  fine  twine  or  a  small 
gage  wire. 

(7)  If  on  examining  the  soap  you  find  it  streaked 


262      ELEMENTARY   INDUSTRIAL  ARTS 

with  greasy  layers  it  has  not  saponified  thoroughly. 
This  is  caused  by  improper  stirring.  In  this  case, 
it  will  be  necessary  to  cut  the  cakes  up  and  put  the 
material  back  into  the  pan  with  ^  pint  of  water. 
The  mixture  should  boil  until  the  soap  is  entirely 
melted  and  the  liquid  has  become  clear.  Pour  into  the 
mold  again,  cover,  and  set  aside  for  two  or  three  days. 
Caution:  The  grease  must  be  clean  and  free 
from  salt.  After  melting  over  the  fire  it  must  be 
allowed  to  cool  until  it  is  just  warm  to  the  hand. 
The  lye  solution  must  be  lukewarm.  Be  sure,  as 
has  been  stated  above,  to  stir  the  lye  into  the 
grease  and  not  the  grease  into  the  lye. 


SOAP  SONG 

Time  was,  back  in  the  sixties, 
When  soap,  both  soft  and  hard, 
Was  each  recurring  springtime 
Made,  out  in  grandma's  yard. 
Then  if  the  moon  was  waning 
And  the  sun  had  come  up  red, 
The  batch  was  sure  to  turn  out  good, 
My  old  grandmother  said. 

The  ashes,  saved  all  winter, 
Were  used  to  make  the  lye, 
And  bits  of  fat  and  meat  rind, 
I  can  not  tell  you  why, 
Were  put  into  the  kettle 
'Neath  which  a  fire  was  made; 
And  I  to  keep  it  burning  bright 
A  penny  new  was  paid. 


THE  SOAP  INDUSTRY  263 

But  that  sweet  smelling  bar  of  soap 

With  which  you  wash  to-day 

Was  made  in  a  huge  factory, 

A  hundred  miles  away, 

And  scores  and  scores  of  workers 

Had  each  his  part  to  do 

That  this  pure  product  of  his  pains 

Might  now  be  used  by  you. 

And  many  skillful  chemists 
Have  studied  day  and  night 
Through  years  of  toil  and  trial 
To  make  our  soap  just  right; 
And  perfumes,  oils,  and  healing  herbs 
From  near  and  distant  lands 
Combine  in  many  kinds  of  soap 
With  which  we  wash  our  hands. 

FLORA  MAE  SHEPARD 


EXERCISES  FOR  STUDY  AND  REVIEW 

(1)  How  was  cloth  cleaned  before  soap  was  invented? 

(2)  What  two  things  are  essential  in  soap  making? 

(3)  How  was  soap  originally  made  in  the  home? 

(4)  How  is  soap  made  in  the  factories? 

(5)  With  what  varieties  of  soap  are  you  familiar? 

(6)  What  kinds  of  stores  handle  soap  products?   Which 
stores  carry  toilet  soap?   Laundry  soap?   Tooth  paste? 

(7)  What  are  some  of  the  qualities  which  a  good  toilet 
soap  should  possess?  A  good  laundry  soap? 

(8)  Tell    the  story  suggested    by  Wessel's  "The  Soap 
Maker." 

(9)  What  are  some   of   the  advantages  and  disadvan- 
tages of  employment  in  a  laundry? 

(10)  In  what  cities  of  the  United  States  is  soap  made? 


264     ELEMENTARY   INDUSTRIAL  ARTS 

(u)  Why  do  you  think  these  cities  were  chosen  by  the 
manufacturers? 


SUGGESTED  READING  ABOUT  SOAP 

Earle. — Home  Life  in  Colonial  Days  (Pages  253  to  255). 
The  Macmillan  Company. 

Tarr  and  McMurry. — New  Geographies,  Second  Book 
(Index  under  Fibre  Products}.  The  Macmillan  Com- 
pany. 

Toothaker. — Commercial  Raw  Materials.     Ginn  &  Co. 

Williams. — How  It  Is  Made  (Chapter  V,  Candles  and 
Soap}.  Thomas  Nelson  and  Sons. 


Arthur  Covey 


Courtesy  of  Lord  &•  Taylor 


VENETIAN  GLASS  BLOWING 


XI 

THE  GLASS  INDUSTRY 

Glass  has  been  used  by  man  in  the  making  of 
useful  articles  and  ornaments,  since  the  dawn 
of  civilization.  The  earliest  glass  articles  were 
of  an  ornamental  character,  being  substitutes  for 
precious  stones,  or  used  for  architectural  decora- 
tions of  buildings.  These  early  glass  articles  were 
generally  molded,  the  molding  being  done  in 
much  the  same  way  as  metal  castings  are  molded 
to-day. 

The  glass  industry  in  the  United  States  began 
in  the  Virginia  colony  soon  after  1607.  The  works 
stood  in  the  woods  about  a  mile  from  Jamestown. 
This  was  the  first  productive  industry  to  be  es- 
tablished in  the  New  World.  Not  many  years 
afterward,  in  1622,  a  second  glass  factory  was 
erected  for  the  manufacture  of  glass  beads  to  be 
used  in  trading  with  the  Indians  who  were  great 
lovers  of  beads.  It  is  possible  that  some  of  the 
265 


Charles  Frederick  Ulrich  Metropolita 

GLASS  BLOWERS  OF  MURANO 


THE  GLASS  INDUSTRY  267 

glass  beads  now  found  in  old  Indian  graves  were 
made  in  one  or  the  other  of  these  two  factories 
at  Jamestown. 

Glass  is  made  today  in  many  different  ways  by 
the  use  of  a  variety  of  materials;  but  in  its  simplest 
form,  its  constituents  are  glass  sand,  or  silica, 
soda  ash,  and  lime.  The  industry  thrives  best 
where  these  materials  are  most  easily  obtained. 
Glass  sand,  the  principal  ingredient,  is  found  in 
Pennsylvania,  Ohio,  Illinois,  West  Virginia,  New 
Jersey,  Missouri,  and  in  some  other  states  of 
the  Union.  The  work  is  carried  on  most  success- 
fully in  those  parts  of  our  country  where  there  is 
an  abundant  supply  of  natural  gas,  this  being 
a  cheap  and  desirable  fuel  for  melting  the  raw 
materials. 

The  United  States  ranks  among  the  leading 
countries  of  the  world  in  the  production  of  glass, 
but  because  a  great  portion  of  it  is  utilized  at 
home,  little  is  left  to  be  exported.  Other  countries 
which  produce  glass  in  large  quantities  are  Belgium, 
Austria,  Germany,  and  France. 

Several  varieties  of  glass  are  made  at  the  present 
time,  the  two  principal  kinds  being  lime  glass, 
which  is  a  compound  of  silica,  soda  ash,  and  lime; 
and  lead  glass,  which  is  a  compound  of  silica,  soda 
ash,  and  lead.  Lime  glass  is  harder  than  lead 
glass  and  most  of  the  cheap  grades  therefore  are 
made  from  lime.  Lead  glass  is  clearer  and  more 
brilliant,  and  being  softer,  it  may  be  cut.  Our 


268     ELEMENTARY   INDUSTRIAL  ARTS 

most  beautiful  articles  of  clear  glass  are  made 
with  lead.  Practically  all  colors  are  obtained  in 
glass,  variation  in  color  being  produced  by  adding 
salts  of  metal,  as  of  iron  to  produce  red,  of  copper 
to  produce  green,  and  of  cobalt  to  produce  blue. 


Making  Crucibles 

The  raw  materials  for  glassmaking  are  ground 
to  a  fine  powder  called  glass  batch  or  frit.  The 
grinding  is  done  in  a  ball  mill  similar  to  that  used 
in  grinding  the  raw  materials  used  in  the  manu- 
facture of  portland  cement  and  of  glazes.  (See 
chapter  on  Cement  and  Concrete,  page  149,  and 
on  Pottery,  page  113.) 

The  ground  materials  used  in  the  making  of 
glass  are  mixed  and  then  placed  in  a  melting  pot 
or  crucible  made  from  fire  clay.  A  temperature 
of  three  thousand  degrees  Fahrenheit  is  required 


THE  GLASS  INDUSTRY  269 

to  fuse  or  melt  them  together.  In  making  ordinary 
window  glass,  the  molten  glass,  called  metal,  is 
gathered  on  the  end  of  a  glass  blower's  tube  which 
is  an  iron  pipe,  about  five  feet  long,  one  end  of 
which  is  provided  with  a  wooden  handle  and  a 
mouthpiece,  the  other  being  somewhat  thickened 


Removing  a  Crucible  from  the  Furnace 

to  receive  the  metal.  The  thickened  end  of  the 
glass  blower's  tube  is  first  heated  to  the  tempera- 
ture of  the  molten  glass,  after  which  it  is  dipped 
into  the  metal,  turned  slowly  a  few  times  and  then 
removed.  The  small  quantity  of  glass  left  sticking 
to  the  nose  of  the  tube  is  allowed  to  cool  until 
it  is  fairly  stiff;  the  whole  tube  meanwhile  is  kept 
rotating  so  as  to  keep  the  little  ball  of  the  glass 
metal  round.  When  this  first  gathering  is  cool 
enough,  the  end  of  the  tube  is  again  placed  in  the 
furnace  and  more  glass  collected.  It  takes  great 


268      ELEMENTARY   INDUSTRIAL  ARTS 

most  beautiful  articles  of  clear  glass  are  made 
with  lead.  Practically  all  colors  are  obtained  in 
glass,  variation  in  color  being  produced  by  adding 
salts  of  metal,  as  of  iron  to  produce  red,  of  copper 
to  produce  green,  and  of  cobalt  to  produce  blue. 


Making  Crucibles 

The  raw  materials  for  glassmaking  are  ground 
to  a  fine  powder  called  glass  batch  or  frit.  The 
grinding  is  done  in  a  ball  mill  similar  to  that  used 
in  grinding  the  raw  materials  used  in  the  manu- 
facture of  portland  cement  and  of  glazes.  (See 
chapter  on  Cement  and  Concrete,  page  149,  and 
on  Pottery,  page  113.) 

The  ground  materials  used  in  the  making  of 
glass  are  mixed  and  then  placed  in  a  melting  pot 
or  crucible  made  from  fire  clay.  A  temperature 
of  three  thousand  degrees  Fahrenheit  is  required 


THE  GLASS  INDUSTRY  269 

to  fuse  or  melt  them  together.  In  making  ordinary 
window  glass,  the  molten  glass,  called  metal,  is 
gathered  on  the  end  of  a  glass  blower's  tube  which 
is  an  iron  pipe,  about  five  feet  long,  one  end  of 
which  is  provided  with  a  wooden  handle  and  a 
mouthpiece,  the  other  being  somewhat  thickened 


Removing  a  Crucible  from  the  Furnace 

to  receive  the  metal.  The  thickened  end  of  the 
glass  blower's  tube  is  first  heated  to  the  tempera- 
ture of  the  molten  glass,  after  which  it  is  dipped 
into  the  metal,  turned  slowly  a  few  times  and  then 
removed.  The  small  quantity  of  glass  left  sticking 
to  the  nose  of  the  tube  is  allowed  to  cool  until 
it  is  fairly  stiff;  the  whole  tube  meanwhile  is  kept 
rotating  so  as  to  keep  the  little  ball  of  the  glass 
metal  round.  When  this  first  gathering  is  cool 
enough,  the  end  of  the  tube  is  again  placed  in  the 
furnace  and  more  glass  collected.  It  takes  great 


272      ELEMENTARY   INDUSTRIAL  ARTS 

until  an  opening  is  finally  blown  out  at  the  lower 
end  of  the  cylinder.  The  glass  cylinder  is  then 
laid  on  a  wooden  rack  where  the  tube  is  removed 
by  placing  a  piece  of  cold  iron  against  the  hot  neck 


Courtesy  of  the  Philadelphia  Commercial  Museum 
Cracking  Off  Window  Glass  Cylinders  Preparatory  to  Flattening 

of  glass  which  is  attached  to  the  tube.  This  starts 
a  crack  in  the  glass  and  a  quick  jerk  removes  the 
tube.  Then  the  neck  of  the  cylinder  and  the  uneven 
portion  of  the  lower  end  are  cracked  off  by  passing 
a  thread  of  hot  glass  around  the  cylinder  and 
removing  the  thread  as  soon  as  it  has  cooled  enough 


THE  GLASS  INDUSTRY 


273 


to  solidify.  The  cylinders  are  cut  into  sections  in 
like  manner. 

Most  window  glass  is  to-day  blown  by  compressed 
air.  Larger  cylinders  can  be  blown  in  this  way  and 
the  glass  is  more  uniform  in  thickness. 

Before  the  glass  cylinder  can  be  flattened  out 
it  must  be  cut  lengthwise.    This  is  done,  either 
by  the  application  of  a  hot  iron  followed  by  slight 
moistening  or  by 
cutting     with     a 
diamond. 

Annealing  is 
the  gradual  heat- 
ing and  cooling 
of  the  glass  to 
prevent  brittle- 
ness.  Two  meth- 
ods are  used :  the 

slow  heating  and  cooling  of  the  glass  in  a  kiln,  and 
the  more  rapid  heating  of  it  in  an  annealing  lehr 
or  oven  through  which  the  glass  passes  on  a 
slowly  moving  carrier.  The  first  method  may 
require  several  days,  while  the  second  requires  only 
a  few  hours.  The  rapid  method  is  generally  used 
in  the  annealing  of  ordinary  window  glass. 

After  the  cylinder  is  split  open  it  is  taken  to  the 
lehr  where  it  is  placed  in  a  chamber,  the  tempera- 
ture of  which  is  high  enough  to  give  the  cylinder 
a  dull  red  color.  From  this  chamber  it  goes  to 
another  where  the  heat  is  such  that  it  will  soften 


Cutting  a  Cylinder  into  Sections 


THE  GLASS  INDUSTRY 


275 


the  glass.  Here  it  is  laid  on  a  smooth  stone  slab 
with  the  split  edges  up  and  slowly  flattened  out 
by  means  of  a  long  wooden  pole.  It  is  then 
smoothed  down  by  moving  a  wooden  instrument 


Blowing  Window  Glass  Cylinders  by  Machine 

lightly  over  the  surface  until  the  sheet  lies  per- 
fectly flat.  The  cylinder  has  at  last  been  trans- 
formed into  a  flat  piece  of  window  glass  which 
now  goes  to  still  another  annealing  chamber  which 
is  of  about  the  same  temperature  as  that  of  the 


276     ELEMENTARY   INDUSTRIAL  ARTS 

flattening  chamber.  Here  it  is  allowed  to  cool 
gradually  after  which  it  is  taken  to  the  sorting 
room  and  from  there  to  the  storeroom. 

The  process  used  in  making  plate  glass  such  as 
is  used  in  show  cases  and  shop  windows  and  in 
some  houses  is  quite  different  from  that  used  in 
making  ordinary  sheet  glass.  For  plate  glass,  the 
materials  used  must  be  as  pure  as  it  is  possible 

to  have  them  and 
great  care  must 
be  taken  that  the 
plate  be  as  smooth 
and  flat  as  pos- 
sible so  that  a 
quantity  of  waste 
glass  need  not  be 
ground  away. 

The  sand,  soda 

ash,  and  lime  are  put  into  large  crucibles  made 
from  fire  clay,  which  can  be  placed  in  the  furnace. 
When  the  materials  have  melted  and  mixed 
thoroughly,  the  crucible  is  lifted  from  the  fur- 
nace by  means  of  a  powerful  hoisting  machine 
and  moved  to  the  roller  table  upon  which  the 
molten  glass  metal  is  poured.  It  is  here  rolled 
out  to  the  desired  thickness  by  a  heavy  iron  roller 
which  passes  over  it.  When  it  has  cooled  suf- 
ficiently to  be  moved  it  is  taken  to  the  annealing 
chamber  where  it  is  sealed  up  and  left  for  four 
or  five  days.  A  much  longer  time  is  required  to 


Cutting  the  Cylinders  Lengthwise 


THE  GLASS  INDUSTRY  277 

anneal  plate  glass  than  window  glass  because  of 
the  greater  thickness  of  the  material. 

The  next  step  is  that  of  grinding  and  polishing. 
For  these  processes  the  large  plate  is  placed  on  a 
revolving  platform  which  moves  on  rails  or  tracks. 
It  is  first  moved  to  the  grinding  rubbers.  These  are 


Rolling  the  Metal  into  Plate  Glass 

flat  iron  discs  which  work  with  much  the  same 
motion  as  when  you  rub  the  palms  of  your  hands 
together  by  turning  one  palm  against  the  other. 
The  grinding  material  is  sharp  sand  moistened 
with  water.  When  most  of  the  roughness  is  ground 
away,  the  grinding  material  is  washed  off  and  a 
finer  sand  used.  This  is  continued  until  the  sur- 
face of  the  glass  is  smooth,  though  the  glass  is 
still  gray  in  color.  The  plate  is  then  washed  and 


J 


THE  GLASS  INDUSTRY 


279 


moved  to  another  set  of  rubbers  which  are  made 
of  wood  or  iron  and  covered  with  felt  pads.  These, 
with  the  aid  of  rouge  (finely  powdered  iron  rust) 
moistened  with  water,  polish  it  until  it  becomes 
the  clear  brilliant  glass  which  we  see  in  use. 


MACHINE  WHICH  TURNS  OUT  18  FINISHED  GLASS  BOTTLES  A  MINUTE 
The  blank  mold  at  the  right  forms  the  head  of  the  bottle;  the  body 
of  the  bottle  is  blown  in  the  blow  mold  at  the  left  and  the  finished 
bottles  are  carried  off  on  the  belt  conveyer. 

This  final  polishing  process  requires  three  hours  or 
more.  The  glass  is  examined  for  defects,  such 
as  streaks  or  bubbles  or  dirt,  and  is  then  cut  and 
the  sheets  sorted. 

Cut  glass  is  another  product  of  the  glass  industry. 
The  dish  or  vase  which  is  to  be  decorated  by  cutting 
is  made  by  pressing  or  by  blowing  the  molten  glass 
into  the  desired  shape,  using  a  mold  of  iron.  The  glass 
cutter  cuts  the  decoration  into  the  glass  by  press- 


280     ELEMENTARY   INDUSTRIAL  ARTS 


ing  the  dish  or  vase  against  a  revolving  grinding 
wheel  which  is  fed  with  emery  powder  and  water. 
The  process  of  cutting  is  not  always  appropriate 
to  glass  forms  and  it  often  renders  the  forms 
unpleasant  to  handle.  Cut  glass  dishes  are  weak- 
ened by  the  cutting 
and  are  more  liable  to 
crack  when  subjected 
to  quick  changes  of 
temperature,  as  in 
washing,  than  are 
other  glass  dishes. 
Besides  this  method 
of  ornamenting  glass, 
beautiful  designs  are 
obtained  by  staining 
or  painting  and  re- 
heating, and  by  etching 
with  hydrofluoric  acid. 
Colored  glass  has 
ever  occupied  an  im- 
portant place  in  art. 
The  Egyptians,  the 
Phoenicians,  the  Greeks,  and  the  Romans  made  free 
use  of  it  as  is  shown  by  the  many  specimens  of  glass 
that  have  been  dug  up  in  their  ancient  tombs. 
The  Portland  Vase,  which  is  now  in  the  British 
Museum,  will  testify  to  the  excellence  of  this 
historic  glassware.  The  body  of  this  wonderful 
old  vase  is  dark  blue.  This  body  was  covered  with 


ANGELS  FROM  STAINED  GLASS  WINDOW 


THE  GLASS  INDUSTRY  281 

a  thick  layer  of  glass  of  a  lighter  color  which  was  then 
partially  cut  away  leaving  a  design  of  great  beauty. 
The  art  of  glassmaking  seems  to  have  been 
neglected  during  medieval  times  and  utensils 
were  made  from  wood  or  horn  instead  of  from  glass. 
However,  about  1400  A.  D.,  the  art  was  again 
taken  up  by  the  Venetians,  who  were  unsurpassed 
as  glassmakers  for  many  years. 


Courtesy  of  the  Metropolitan  Museum  of  Art 

Venetian  Glass  of  the  i6th  and  iyth  Centuries 

The  great  cathedrals  built  during  the  middle 
ages  in  Europe  show  evidence  in  their  beautiful 
windows  of  a  highly  developed  ability  in  making 
art  glass.  Among  the  finest  windows  of  this  period 
are  those  of  Liege  in  Belgium,  Gouda  in  Holland 
and  King's  College  Chapel,  Cambridge,  England. 

The  following  is  a  list  of  modern  products 
commonly  made  of  glass : 

(a)  Blown  glass  (b)  Pressed  glass 

window  glass         cut  glass  utensils 

bottles  stained  glass  insulators 

bulbs  jars  (c)    Plate  glass 

mirrors 
wire  glass 

(d)  Beads 


282      ELEMENTARY   INDUSTRIAL  ARTS 

Modern  stained  glass  is  equal  if  not  superior 
to  that  produced  earlier  and  nowhere  is  finer  glass 
produced  than  in  the  United  States  where  the 
art  of  making  stained  glass  for  church  windows 
has  kept  pace  with  the  art  of  making  beautiful 
glass  utensils.  Tiffany  glass  made  in  the  United 
States  is  perhaps  the  finest  colored  glass  produced, 
both  from  the  standpoint  of  brilliancy  of  color 
and  variety  of  texture.  Many  pieces  of  this  glass 
utilize  the  best  of  the  experience  of  all  periods. 

The  bead  maker's  art  has  never  been  thoroughly 
Americanized.  Our  best  glass  beads  still  come 
from  abroad.  This  does  not  signify  that  American 
manufacturers  cannot  make  beautiful  glass  beads. 
They  have  demonstrated  that  they  can  make  them. 
But  they  cannot  compete  with  the  countries  on 
the  other  side  of  the  Atlantic  where  people  work 
for  a  lower  wage. 

Beads  are  used  in  the  making  of  chains  and 
necklaces  and  as  decorations  for  textiles.  They 
are  applied  to  fabrics  by  embroidery  and  in  the 
weaving.  Bead  embroidery  is  much  like  common 
embroidery  which  consists  in  sewing  strands  of 
thread  to  the  .surface  of  the  cloth.  In  bead  weav- 
ing the  beads  are  strung  upon  the  weft  strand. 

The  three  most  important  types  of  bead  weav- 
ing are  illustrated  on  page  283.  They  are  as  follows: 

(a)  Single  weft.  After  the  warp  threads  are 
stretched,  a  single  thread  with  needle  is  passed 
through. 


THE  GLASS  INDUSTRY 


283 


<*>» 


Single  Weft 


(b)  Double  weft.    In  this  the  weft  thread  is  passed 
through   the   beads  and   then   beads  and   thread 
are  laid  upon  the  warp  after  which  the  needle 
is      passed      back     through 

each  bead  on  the  other  side 

of  the  warp  threads.  "  ®  @-Q.  ^^ 

(c)  Double  warp.   Here  the 
warp  is  often  manipulated  by 
a  harness  frame.    (See  Chap- 
ter VII,  page  194.)    The  weft 
thread    is    strung    with    the 
correct    number     of     beads 
and    then    passed    between 
the  warp    threads.     In   this 
way  the  beads  are  properly 
spaced. 

The  American  Indians 
were  and  still  are  master 
bead  weavers.  Their  real 
bead  work  originated  with 
the  introduction  of  glass 
beads  into  America  by  the 
first  white  settlers  although 
prior  to  1500  they  had  work-  Double  Warp 

ed   on  buckskin    and    cloth, 

using  quills  instead  of  beads.    Beads  were  regarded 
as  a  great  improvement  over  the  quills. 

Bead  weaving  is  to-day  becoming  even  more 
popular  than  ever  as  a  means  of  making  beautiful 
fabrics  which  are  fashioned  into  bags,  purses  and 


Double  Weft 


284     ELEMENTARY   INDUSTRIAL  ARTS 

many  other  articles  of  artistic  merit  which  are 
often  of  great  commercial  value.  Bead  woven 
fabrics  are  strong  and  durable. 

GLASS  BEAD  WORK 

Bead  construction  offers  opportunity  for  count- 
ing, repeating  decorative  units,  and  creating 
good  color  combinations.  The  simple  stringing 

of  beads  includes 
repeating  in  al- 
ternation    the 
Old  Indian  Weaving  BOW  Used  in  same  number  of 

Primitive  Bead  Work  beads       in       two 

colors,     various 

numbers  of  beads  in  two  colors,  and  various  num- 
bers in  three  or  more  colors.  By  looping  the  chain 
at  given  points  you  will  discover  a  variety  of 
additional  effects.  Bead  necklaces  form  an  excellent 
introduction  to  the  study  of  jewelry.  Various 
methods  of  stringing  beads  are  illustrated  on  page 
286  and  described  below: 

A.  A  simple  chain  is  started  by  tying  on  the 
first  bead  (this,  in  bead  work,  proves  inevitable) ; 
a  single  dark  bead  is  followed  by  a  single  light  one. 
Leave  the  beads  rather  loose,  return  from  a  dark 
bead,  string  on  a  light  one,  through  the  dark,  and 
on  a  light  one,  until  completed.  Any  number  of 
beads  may  occur  between  those  taken  up.  This 
may  easily  be  developed  into  a  bag  or  purse,  which 
may  be  made  with  or  without  a  silk  lining.  Our 


THE  GLASS  INDUSTRY 


285 


grandmothers  made  exquisite  collars  in  this  way, 
carefully  shaping  them  by  count. 

B.  The  chain  is  worked  with  two  needles, 
threaded  on  both  ends  of  a  silk  or  cotton  thread. 
Wax  the  thread.  When  a  link  is  completed  instead 


The  Modern  Priscilla 

Triple  Bead  Chain  of  Forget-me-nots 

of  entering  the  bead  from  the  same  direction  in 
which  it  was  strung,  let  the  second  needle  enter 
the  bead  from  the  opposite  direction  and  the 
needles  will  cross  the  thread  in  the  middle  of  the 
bead.  A  variety  of  designs  is  possible. 

C.  With  a  single  string  of  beads  we  sometimes 
wish  to  carry  a  straight  line  and  to  vary  it  with  a 
flower  effect.  The  daisy  or  the  forget-me-not  form 


286     ELEMENTARY   INDUSTRIAL  ARTS 

has  been  especially  successful.  After  making  the 
straight  line  by  stringing  a  certain  number  of 
beads  (in  this  case  five),  string  on  eight  white  beads, 
carry  your  needle  and  thread  through  the  first 
white  one  in  the  same  direction  it  was  strung.  Take 
up  one  yellow  bead  for  the  center,  pass  the  needle 
through  the  fifth,  or  opposite  bead,  and  string  the 
other  color  again. 


There  are  several  other  ways  of  constructing 
flower  patterns.  Experiment  with  two  or  three 
strong  threads.  Cotton,  black  and  white,  and 
ordinary  sewing  silk  are  good  materials  to  use  for 
stringing.  It  is  desirable  always  to  wax  the  thread. 
With  one  strand,  an  occasional  knot  made  in  the 
thread  will  enable  the  beads  to  lie  loose  and  this 
also  lightens  the  strain  on  the  thread.  Fringes  of 
beads  should  never  have  their  threads  cut  at  the 
bottom.  Return  the  thread  a  second  time  up 
through  the  beads  to  the  heading.  A  loop,  or  a 


THE  GLASS  INDUSTRY  287 

daisy,  or  a  larger  bead  may  uniformly  or  occa- 
sionally finish  the  ends  of  the  fringe. 

D.  The  simplest  method  of  design,  and,  per- 
haps, of  construction  also,  in  all-over  surface  pat- 
terns, is  to  stretch  the  warp  or  vertical  threads 
on  a  pasteboard  frame  or  on  a  simple  wooden 
loom.  On  the  pasteboard  the  threads  may  exactly 
fit  the  dimensions  of  the  piece  of  work  when 
finished.  If  a  loom  is  used,  the  cut  ends  of  the 
warp  will  have  to  be  fastened  at  either  end.  Make 
your  design  first  on  the  squared  paper,  letting  the 
vertical  lines  represent  the  warp  threads  which 
lie  between  the  beads.  These  threads  will  probably 
be  heavier  than  the  thread  with  which  you  sew 
the  beads,  but  this  will  make  no  difference. 

In  stringing  the  beads,  tie  the  sewing  thread, 
well  waxed,  to  the  first  warp  strand.  String  the 
beads  called  for  by  your  design  in  sequence,  from 
left  to  right.  Carry  the  weft  thread  under  the 
warp  thread,  stringing  a  bead  between  every  two 
strands,  and  so  on  across  the  loom.  Bring  the 
thread  over  the  right  warp  end  and  pass  the  needle 
back  through  each  of  the  beads  in  succession.  Each 
warp  thread  will  be  crossed  by  two  weft  threads, 
one  above  and  one  below,  held  in  place  by  the  beads. 

Chains  of  four  or  five  beads  in  width,  with 
repeats  of  small  units,  are  attractive  and  useful 
for  many  purposes.  Purses,  cardcases,  candle 
and  lamp  shades,  may  be  made  by  this  method, 
as  well  as  belts  and  chains. 


288      ELEMENTARY   INDUSTRIAL  ARTS 

E.  The  same  directions  for  design  may  be 
applied  to  free  weaving  without  a  loom.  String  the 
first  row  of  beads  from  left  to  right,  tying  the  first 
bead  on  at  the  left.  The  design  might  have 
an  odd  or  even  number  of  spaces  across,  but  an 
even  number  is  more  satisfactory.  String  on  the 
first  right  bead  on  the  second  row,  carry  thread 
through  the  next  to  the  last  bead  on  the  previous 
row;  string  a  bead,  carry  thread  through  below 


and  with  an  even  number  the  needle  will  hold  the 
first  bead  before  returning  to  fill  in  the  second  row. 
One  thread  carries  straight  and  the  other  alternates 
between  two  rows.  Extra  beads  may  be  added  on 
the  edge  for  picot  finish.  Always  make  your  design 
first  on  the  squared  paper.  There  are  no  ends  of 
thread  to  be  considered,  as  in  the  warp  strands 
above.  After  a  center  has  been  constructed,  a 
border  may  be  worked,  carrying  thread  and  stitches 
all  the  way  round.  Fine  wire  may  be  used  instead 
of  thread  in  this  construction. 


THE  GLASS  INDUSTRY  289 

Similar  to  the  last  in  construction,  but  different 
in  design,  is  diagonal  free  sewing.  No  loom  is 
used.  In  the  design  the  squared  paper  is  turned 
diagonally. 

Little  flowers  may  be  scattered  through  the 
chain  design  in  many  different  ways,  and  patterns 
of  single  units  of  beads  may  be  tastefully  dis- 
tributed over  a  background  of  silk  or  canvas. 


The  Modern  Priscilla 
Beaded  Cardcase 

For  all-over  beadwork  on  canvas,  the  waxed 
thread  should  be  worked  the  reverse  of  ordinary 
cross-stitch  on  canvas.  On  the  upper  or  bead 
surface  carry  the  thread  straight,  vertically  or 
horizontally,  according  to  the  best  effect  for  the 
colors  used.  Underneath,  let  the  stitch  slant 
diagonally.  If  you  cannot  keep  the  direction 
uniform  when  you  work  over  and  back,  fasten  the 
thread  each  time  and  work  always  from  left  to 


lodern  Priscilla 

Hand  Bag  of  Gold,  Steel,  and  Crystal  Beads  on  Canvas 


THE  GLASS  INDUSTRY  291 

right,  or  from  right  to  left.  If  the  beads  are  so 
irregular  that  the  canvas  shows  through  in  spots, 
you  can  stain  the  canvas  with  dyes  or  with  strong 
water  color  from  the  back.  Brilliant  colored  sewing 
silk  varies  the  color  effects  if  transparent  glass 
beads  are  used. 

Leather  makes  a  very  satisfactory  background. 
It  is  most  successful  and  interesting  in  its  applica- 
tion in  stripes  or  bands  of  five  beads  in  width. 
The  spacings  between  the  stripes  are  decidedly 
effective.  Sometimes  only  one  color  of  beads  is 
used  (in  this  case,  blue  seems  to  be  a  favorite). 
Where  narrow  bands  edge  moccasins,  bags,  and 
belts  of  Indian  design,  simple  patterns  are  most 
effective.  The  silk  for  sewing  should  be  waxed. 
It  need  not  go  through  the  leather  or  show  on 
the  other  side. 

When  you  prefer  to  fill  a  space  solidly  make  your 
design  carefully  on  paper  which  has  been  marked 
off  in  very  small  squares  and  use  a  very  strong 
fabric  or  leather  as  a  foundation.  Stretch  your 
thread  from  the  left,  where  it  has  been  fastened; 
string  on  the  beads  following  your  design,  in 
sequence  from  left  to  right,  first  row.  Pass  your 
needle  into  the  fabric  on  the  right.  Do  not  crowd 
the  beads  too  close  together.  Bring  your  needle 
through  the  fabric  under  not  more  than  five  beads 
at  a  time,  then  to  the  surface;  carry  it  through  a 
few  beads  and  again  under  the  next  group  through 
the  fabric.  String  each  row  from  the  left  and 


292      ELEMENTARY   INDUSTRIAL  ARTS 

fasten  on  the  return  from  the  right.  There  should 
be  no  break  in  the  line  or  surface  of  the  beads;  all 
should  lie  perfectly  smooth  and  even.  Large 


—Light   Green,  gl 

—  Brown,  glass 

—  White,   opaque 
—Yellow,   opaque 

—  Black 
—Dark   Amethyst 


X    1—  Dark    Green,  opaque 
A    1  —  Dark  Rose,   glass 
L.    !  —  Medium  Green,  opaque 
V    1—  Light  Green,  opaque 
•     1  —  Dark  Green,  glass 
*.     1—  Medium  Blue 
4  —  Opal 

The  Modern  Priscitta 

DESIGN  FOR  BEADED  BAG  DRAWN  ON  SQUARED  PAPER 
Symbols  are  employed  in  the  design  to  indicate  the  color  of 
beads  to  be  used. 

medallions  or  designs  with  a  rich  variety  of  color 

can  thus  be  effectively  worked  on  leather  bags. 

In  designs  on  leather  the  effect  is  often  better 

when  the  direction  of  the  strings  of  beads  varies. 


THE  GLASS  INDUSTRY  293 

This  time  make  your  design  freely,  without  squared 
paper  and  then  transfer  the  design  to  the  fabric. 
String  the  outer  line  of  beads.  Fasten  them,  as 
before,  running  the  thread  under  the  fabric  and 
then  up  through  the  beads.  Place  row  next  row 
as  the  design  requires. 

Sometimes  in  all-over  design,  the  border  or 
special  parts  may  be  worked  in  a  different  direc- 
tion from  that  of  the  background  or  other  parts. 
This  does  not  imply  that  the  worker  may  be  care- 
less; it  requires  increased  though tfulness  and 
care. 


MY  WORK 

Let  me  but  do  my  work  from  day  to  day, 
In  field  or  forest,  at  the  desk  or  loom, 
In  roaring  market-place  or  tranquil  room; 
Let  me  but  find  it  in  my  heart  to  say, 
When  vagrant  wishes  beckon  me  astray: 
"This  is  my  work ;  my  blessing,  not  my  doom ; 
Of  all  who  live,  I  am  the  one  by  whom 
This  work  can  best  be  done  in  the  right  way." 
Then  shall  I  see  it  not  too  great,  nor  small, 
To  suit  my  spirit  and  to  prove  my  powers; 
Then  shall  I  cheerful  greet  the  laboring  hours, 
And  cheerful  turn,  when  the  long  shadows  fall 
At  eventide,  to  play  and  love  and  rest 
Because  I  know  for  me  my  work  is  best. 

HENRY  VAN  DYKE 

From   The  Poems  of  Henry  Van  Dyke;  copyright,    1920,  by   Charles 
Scribner's  Sons.     By  permission  of  the  publishers. 


294     ELEMENTARY   INDUSTRIAL  ARTS 
EXERCISES  FOR  STUDY  AND  REVIEW 

(1)  For  what  purpose  was  glass  first  made? 

(2)  What  use  did  the  American  Indians  find  for  glass? 

(3)  What  are  the  three  materials  most  commonly  used 
in  glass  making? 

(4)  Compare  the  making  of  glass  with  glaze  making 
in  a  pottery. 

(5)  How  can  you  tell  ordinary  window  glass  from  plate 
glass?   If  you  cannot  answer  this  question  at  once,  compare 
the  glass  commonly  used  in  windows  with  the  glass  used 
in  the  large  show  windows  of  stores. 

(6)  How  is  common  window  glass  made? 

(7)  How  is  plate  glass  made? 

(8)  Explain  Charles  F.  Ulrich's  picture,  "Glass  Blowers 
of  Murano." 

(9)  Why  are  utensils  impractical  when  made  of  cut  glass 
which  is  cut  too  deeply? 

(10)  Which   would   you  prefer   to   be,    a   salesman   of 
chinaware  or  of  glassware?  Why? 

(11)  In   what   kinds   of  glass   products   does   America 
excel? 


SUGGESTED  READING  ABOUT  GLASS 

Bassett. — The  Story  of  Glass.     Penn  Publishing  Company. 
Chamberlain. — How   We  Are  Sheltered  (Page   146,  Glass}. 

The  Macmillan  Company. 
Eppendorff. — Handwork  Construction  (See  Beadwork).  Pratt 

Institute. 
Lethaby. — The  Artistic  Crafts  Series  (See  Stained  Glass). 

D.  Appleton  &  Co. 
Rocheleau. — Great  American   Industries     (Page   37).      A. 

Flanagan  Co. 


THE  GLASS  INDUSTRY  295 

Rodgers  and  Others. — Trade  Foundations  (Index  under 
Glass,  Glassware).  G.  M.  Jones,  Indianapolis. 

Tarr  and  McMurry. — New  Geographies,  Second  Book 
(Index  under  Glass  Making,  Mosaic  Work).  The 
Macmillan  Company. 

Toothaker. — Commercial  Raw  Materials.    Ginn  &  Co. 

Wells. — How  the  Present  Came  from  the  Past,  Book  Two 
(Index  under  Glass,  Glass  Blowers,  Magnifying  Glasses, 
Mirrors,  Opaque  Glass,  Vases).  The  Macmillan  Com- 
pany. 

Williams.— How  It  Is  Made  (Chapter  VIII).  Thomas 
Nelson  and  Sons. 


Andrew  Brakken 

LOGGING 


XII 
WOOD  AND  WOODWORKING 

Most  of  the  people  in  the  world  to-day  are 
dependent  upon  lumber  or  other  wood  products 
for  shelter  and  for  many  necessary  commodities. 
It  would  not  be  a  difficult  matter  to  list  a  hundred 
articles  that  we  all  use  every  day,  some  part  of 
which  is  made  from  wood.  Realizing  the  impor- 
tance of  this  material  in  our  daily  lives,  let  us  inves- 
tigate its  transformation  from  tree  to  finished 
product.  The  first  stage  of  this  transformation  is 
lumbering. 

When  lumbering  is  engaged  in  upon  a  large 
scale,  a  small  group  of  men  is  first  sent  into  the 
forest  on  a  land-looking  trip.  They  inspect  the 
various  parts  of  the  forest  in  search  of  the  best 
timber,  and  they  try  to  determine  the  most  econom- 
ical way  of  transporting  it  to  market.  A  suitable 
site  for  operations  is  chosen  and  the  location  of 
the  main  camp  is  decided  upon.  To  mark  off  the 
timber  tract  definitely,  it  is  customary  to  bound 
it  by  blazing  or  gashing  certain  trees  which  will 
296 


Photograph  by  Lindley  Eddy 


California  Redwoods 


298     ELEMENTARY   INDUSTRIAL  ARTS 

serve  as  markers.  The  foreman  of  the  company 
operating  on  the  land  usually  hires  all  the  men 
needed  to  do  the  work.  The  list  includes  lumber- 
jacks, cooks,  clerks,  and  a  blacksmith.  A  complete 
outfit  is  finally  gotten  together  which  includes 
teams,  wagons,  saws  and  other  lumber  working 
tools,  stoves  and  cooking  utensils,  a  blacksmith's 
outfit,  and  a  stock  of  supplies  sufficient  to  last 
for  several  months.  These  goods  are  hauled  in 
over  a  rough  tote  road  cut  through  the  forest  to 
the  main  camp  site.  The  men  are  now  set  to  work 
building  the  bunk-house,  office,  blacksmith  shop, 
mess  house,  and  stables.  Not  until  these  buildings 
are  finished  and  everything  is  in  place  does  the 
real  work  of  lumbering  begin. 

The  first  great  task  in  the  lumbering  operations 
is  the  building  of  a  wide,  smooth  road  which  extends 
from  the  heart  of  the  forest  to  a  place  from  whence 
the  logs  can  be  transported  readily,  either  by  rail 
or  by  water.  The  road  must  be  carefully  built  in 
order  that  it  may  withstand  the  enormous  weight 
of  the  loads  of  logs  which  must  pass  over  it. 
Every  stump  and  rock  is  removed,  the  roadbed 
is  plowed  and  packed,  strong  bridges  are  built, 
and  everything  is  put  in  first-class  condition. 
Wherever  needed,  skidways  are  provided  at  the 
side  of  the  main  road.  These  are  merely  cleared 
areas  upon  which  logs  may  be  temporarily  stacked 
before  the  hauling  begins.  From  each  skidway 
narrow  dray  roads  must  be  chopped  back  through 


WOOD  AND  WOODWORKING  299 

the  forest  so  that  the  logs  may  be  dragged  out 
by  the  teams  to  the  main  road. 

The  second  part  of  the  lumbering  operations 
consists  in  felling  the  trees  and  trimming  the  logs. 
Preliminary  to  the  felling,  however,  a  fitter  goes 
through  the  woods  and  designates  each  tree  to  be 
felled  by  means  of  an  axe  gash  on  the  side  toward 
which  it  is  to  fall.  The  sawyers  then  enter  the 
woods  in  pairs.  When  they  begin  to  fell  a  tree 
they  first  chop  a  deep  notch  in  it  on  the  side 
toward  which  it  is  to  fall.  Then  with  a  thin, 
flexible  crosscut  saw  they  begin  to  cut  the  tree 
off,  starting  on  the  side  opposite  the  gash.  When 
partly  sawn  the  tree  will  settle  down,  closing 
the  kerf,  or  opening  made  by  the  saw,  and  pinch- 
ing the  saw.  This  is  remedied  by  driving,  with  a 
large  wooden  maul,  an  iron  wedge  into  the  kerf. 
The  sawing  and  wedging  are  continued  until  the 
tree  is  nearly  cut  off.  If  it  does  not  now  fall  of 
its  own  accord  more  wedges  are  driven  in,  until 
it  is  finally  thrown  in  the  proper  direction. 

A  great  amount  of  judgment  and  skill  must  be 
exercised  in  felling  a  tree  to  avoid  serious  accidents 
and  to  keep  the  tree  from  lodging  in  the  branches 
of  others  near  by.  Very  heavy  trees  must  not  be 
allowed  to  fall  across  stumps  or  hard  ground  lest 
their  trunks  be  split  from  the  impact.  Sometimes 
brush  is  piled  upon  the  ground  to  make  a  falling  bed 
for  a  large,  valuable  tree.  In  hilly  countries  trees 
are  thrown  uphill  to  shorten  the  falling  distance. 


3oo     ELEMENTARY   INDUSTRIAL  ARTS 

When  a  tree  has  fallen,  the  sawyers  pass  on  to 
other  trees  while  swampers  trim  off  the  branches 
close  to  the  trunk  and  cut  the  tree  into  standard 
log  lengths,  exercising  the  utmost  care  to  avoid  the 
knots  and  irregular  or  rotten  parts. 

The  third  stage  consists  of  dragging  the  logs 


Cress-Dale  Photo  Co. 

HAULING  A  TWENTY-FOOT  SPRUCE  LOG  ON  MOTOR  TRUCK 

The  log  was  about  4  feet  in  diameter,  and  contained  3,000  feet 

of  lumber.    This  operation  was  a  part  of  the  U.  S.  Army  Airplane 

spruce   production   operations,  where  the   spruce   timber  was  too 

scattered  for  rail  hauling. 

to  the  skid  ways  where  they  are  to  be  piled.  Gen- 
erally a  man  does  the  skidding  with  a  team  of 
horses,  hitching  to  the  logs  by  chains  or  with 
tong-like  hooks,  and  snaking  them  to  the  skid- 
ways.  Here  the  logs  are  placed  crosswise  on  two 


Charles  S.  Chapman 


Courtesy  of  Scribner's  Magazine 


SLOOPING  LOGS  DOWN  THE  MOUNTAIN 


302      ELEMENTARY  INDUSTRIAL  ARTS 

skids  or  small  logs  laid  about  ten  feet  apart  and 
at  right  angles  to  the  main  road.  Since  many 
logs  must  be  placed  on  one  another  they  are 
decked  on  the  pile  by  means  of  a  horse  hitched 
to  a  log  chain  that  is  fastened  to  the  pile  of  logs 


U.  S.  Forest  Service 

Skidway  on  Big  Blackfoot  Timber  Sale,  Montana 

extends  out  under  the  log  that  is  being 
;decked  and  back  over  the  top  of  all,  to  the  horse 
on  the  other  side.  These  logs  lie  on  the  skidways, 
while  others  are  being  cut  and  piled,  until  winter 
sets  in  and  enough  snow  comes  to  prepare  for  the 
sleigh  haul. 

Logs  are  often  slooped  down  the  mountain  side 
to  the  lakes  or  rivers.  The  sloop  used  for  this 
purpose  is  a  rough  sled  made  of  two  kinds  of 
wood,  a  hard  wood  and  a  stout,  supple  wood; 


"ATI  TKACHEK8  COM* 
•ANT A  »AK»A,«A.  C. 

^      I  I  oil 

WOOD  AND  WOODWORKING-         303 

from  the  latter  the  runner  facings  are  made.  The 
facings  are  fastened  to  the  runners  by  means  of 
wooden  pegs.  The  ends  of  two  big  logs  are  usually 
chained  to  the  sloop  while  the  opposite  ends  are 
allowed  to  drag  on  the  road  to  act  as  a  brake. 
The  little  French  Canadian  horses  used  for  this 
purpose  are  often  very  expert.  On  the  very  steep 
places  they  must  sit  on  their  haunches  and  slide 
ahead  of  the  heavy  logs,  but  the  moment  the 
lake  is  reached  they  must  swing  to  one  side  out 
of  the  way  of  the  load. 

When  the  logs  are  all  on  the  skidways,  two 
sealers  work  at  the  log  piles,  one  at  each  end, 
measuring  the  logs  to  determine  the  number  of 
feet  of  lumber  in  them  and  marking  them  with  the 
company's  name  by  means  of  an  iron  stamp  made 
with  a  handle  and  used  like  a  hammer. 

As  soon  as  the  cutting,  skidding,  and  scaling  of 
the  logs  is  accomplished  the  men  turn  their  atten- 
tion to  preparing  for  the  hauling  to  the  shipping 
point.  They  go  over  the  main  road  again  and  repair 
any  irregularities  in  its  surface.  The  surface  of  the 
road  is  flooded  with  water  in  freezing  weather  by 
means  of  immense  road  sprinklers.  After  repeated 
sprinklings  the  road  becomes  a  hard  and  smooth 
bed  of  ice. 

Heavy  sleds  are  now  drawn  to  the  skidways 
and  are  carefully  loaded  with  huge  piles  of  logs. 
The  method  of  loading  is  the  same  as  that  employed 
in  decking  the  logs  on  the  skidways.  When  the 


304     ELEMENTARY   INDUSTRIAL  ARTS 

sled  is  loaded  and  the  logs  have  been  securely 
chained  and  clamped  in  place,  a  single  team  of 
horses  is  hitched  to  the  sled  to  pull  it  to  the  shipping 
point.  The  horses  must  have  very  sharp  shoes  to 
enable  them  to  pull  on  the  icy  road;  on  account 
of  the  smoothness  and  slope  of  the  road  they  do  not 
have  to  pull  very  much,  but  rather  to  guide  and 
check  the  rush  of  the  load,  especially  on  the  steep 
places.  The  drivers  of  these  immense  loads  must 
be  skilled  horsemen,  for  if  the  load  once  gets  away, 
or  leaves  the  road,  the  driver  as  well  as  the  team 
may  be  killed. 

When  the  load  reaches  the  shipping  point  it  is 
stopped  opposite  two  skids  which  with  others 
reach  to  the  railway  cars,  or  to  the  river,  as  the 
case  may  be.  The  load  is  now  unchained  and  the 
logs  allowed  to  roll  off  the  sled  and  upon  the  skid- 
ways.  They  are  now,  by  means  of  a  horse  and 
chain,  either  loaded  directly  on  cars  and  shipped, 
or  else  they  are  rolled  out  upon  the  ice  which  at 
this  time  covers  the  river.  The  hauling  continues 
until  every  log  has  been  shipped,  or  decked  on  the 
ice  of  the  river.  In  the  latter  case,  nothing  more 
can  be  done  until  the  spring  thaw  releases  them. 

When  the  ice  begins  to  thaw  and  the  freshets 
to  fill  the  river,  the  lumberjacks  don  their  water- 
proof suits  and  heavily  spiked  shoes.  Then,  each 
with  a  peavey  (a  sort  of  cant  hook  and  pike  pole 
combined  which  is  used  to  roll  and  propel  the 
logs)  they  set  to  work.  When  the  ice  and  logs 


WOOD  AND  WOODWORKING 


305 


start  to  move,  some  of  the  men  have  to  ride  the 
logs  to  help  prevent  jams,  while  others  work  along 
the  shore  to  keep  the  logs  from  landing  and  also  to 
start  those  which  have  become  lodged.  The  men 
must  be  skillful  in  handling  the  logs  to  keep  them 


U.  S.  Forest  Service 
Men  Riding  Logs  down  Stream,  Northern  Michigan 

moving.  Sometimes,  in  spite  of  their  efforts,  the 
whole  mass  becomes  wedged  and  forms  a  jam. 
On  account  of  the  great  pressure  of  the  water  and 
of  the  logs  behind,  it  is  almost  impossible  to  start 
the  mass  moving  without  the  aid  of  dynamite 
blasts  to  break  the  key  logs  or  those  which  are 
doing  the  holding.  Log  jams  have  been  success- 
fully broken  by  damming  the  stream  above  the 


306     ELEMENTARY   INDUSTRIAL  ARTS 

jam  so  that  when  the  dam  is  removed  the  large 
volume  of  water  released  will  sweep  the  logs  up- 
ward and  forward.  The  drive  continues  until  the 
logs  reach  the  mill  where  they  are  to  be  sawed. 


U.  S.  Forest  Service 
Logs  from  Pond  Passing  up  Slip  of  Mill  at  South  Gardiner,  Maine 

Here  a  heavy  fence  of  logs  is  stretched  across  the 
stream  to  stop  them  as  they  come  down  the  river 
and  to  guide  them  to  the  mill  pond  where  they 
are  allowed  to  float  until  they  are  finally  sawn 
into  lumber. 

The  logs  are  allowed  to  remain  in  the  water  as 
long  as  possible  as  this  prevents  checking,  or  crack- 


WOOD  AND  WOODWORKING  307 

ing  due  to  contraction  in  drying.  One  by  one 
they  are  pulled  out  of  the  water  and  guided  to 
the  end  of  a  long  sloping  jackladder,  a  trough 
in  the  bottom  of  which  there  runs  an  endless 
chain  provided  with  dogs,  or  hooks,  which  prevent 
the  lower  ends  of  the  logs  from  slipping.  The 
process  of  sawmilling  begins  when  the  logs  climb 
the  jackladder.  They  move  almost  end  to  end. 
After  reaching  the  floor  above  they  are  rolled 
off  sidewise  on  a  sorting  platform  where  they  are 
hastily  examined  for  stones  or  other  hard  sub- 
stances which  might  injure  the  saw. 

When  the  logs  have  been  inspected  they  are 
rolled  down  an  inclined  platform  until  they  are 
stopped  near  the  saw  carriage  by  an  automatic 
log  stopper,  which  is  worked  by  a  steam  piston.  It 
allows  but  one  log  at  a  time  to  roll  upon  the  car- 
riage. 

As  soon  as  the  log  is  on  the  carriage  it  is  clamped 
securely  in  place.  Then  the  carriage  is  driven 
forward  against  the  saw  and  a  thick  slab  of  bark 
is  cut  from  one  of  its  sides  the  entire  length  of 
the  log  while  the  carriage  passes  by  the  saw  and 
on  to  the  opposite  end  of  the  track.  Here  the  log 
is  turned  halfway  over  either  by  hand  with  a  cant 
hook  or  by  a  toothed  arm  driven  by  a  steam  piston. 

The  carriage  is  now  reversed  and  as  it  passes 
by  the  saw  on  its  return  trip  a  second  slab  is  cut 
off.  The  two  cuts  already  made  are  at  right  angles 
to  one  another.  Similar  slabs  are  now  sawn  in 


©  Cress-Dale  Photo  Co. 

INTERIOR  OF  A  TYPICAL  SAW  MILL 

A  six-foot  spruce  log  is  on  the  carriage.  The  band  saw  is  16  inches 
wide  and  50  feet  long  and  is  held  at  a  tension  of  5,000  Ibs.  The  man 
with  the  pickaroon,  a  sort  of  cant  hook,  is  the  off-bearer,  who  takes  the 
slab  as  it  comes  from  the  saw  and  drops  it  to  the  rolls;  the  sawyer  and 
the  mill  foreman  are  in  the  back-ground. 


WOOD  AND  WOODWORKING  309 

like  manner  from  the  two  uncut  sides  as  the  log 
again  passes  the  saw  on  its  trip  to  the  opposite 
end  of  the  track  and  back. 

If  the  timber  is  to  be  left  square  it  is  now  re- 
moved from  the  carriage,  but  if  it  is  to  be  cut  into 
boards  the  sawyer  goes  on  cutting  off  boards  by 
moving  the  log  a  little  farther  toward  the  saw  after 
each  board  has  been  cut  off.  As  the  timbers  leave 
the  saw  they  are  taken  directly  to  the  other 
machines  on  rollers  which  are  kept  turning  by 
machinery.  When  the  boards  have  reached  their 
destination  they  are  removed  by  chains  which 
travel  at  right  angles  to  the  direction  in  which 
they  were  moving. 

The  first  boards  cut  sometimes  leave  the  saw 
with  rough  bark  along  their  edges.  These  must 
pass  between  a  pair  of  edger  saws  which  trim  off 
the  bark  from  both  edges  at  the  same  time  cutting 
all  these  outside  boards  to  the  same  uniform 
width. 

These  boards,  along  with  the  others,  now  pass 
through  a  lumber  trimmer  which  cuts  them  all, 
approximately,  to  the  same  length. 

The  lumber  goes  next  to  the  sorting  room  where  it 
is  graded  as  to  quality  and  cut  to  exact  length  by 
a  swing  cut-off  saw. 

The  slabs  first  cut  from  the  log  are  now  cut 
into  shingles  or  lath.  They  are  cut  automatically 
into  suitable  lengths  by  the  slasher  saw.  Another 
machine  rips  them,  counts  and  binds  the  shingles 


310     ELEMENTARY   INDUSTRIAL  ARTS 

and  laths  into  bundles  of  standard  size.  The  small 
chips  and  sawdust  from  these  machines  are  blown 
through  pipes  to  the  furnace  room  where  they 
are  used  for  fuel.  Large  chips  and  worthless 
boards  pass  through  the  hog,  a  machine  which 
chews  them  into  fine  chips,  also  used  for  fuel. 


V.  S.  Forest  Service 

Slasher  and  Trimmer  at  Government  Saw  Mill,  Menominee.Wisconsin, 
Indian  Reservation 

In  this  way  there  is  no  waste  at  all,  as  the  un- 
marketable part  of  the  wood  is  used  to  furnish 
motive  power  for  the  mill. 

You  will  recall  that  in  the  winter  after  the  logs 
had  been  cut  they  were  dumped  into  the  river 
and  allowed  to  lie  in  the  water  for  a  long  time, 
and  that  they  were  left  in  the  mill  pond  until 


WOOD  AND  WOODWORKING  311 

just  before  the  sawing.  The  logger  does  not  leave 
the  log  in  the  water  because  this  happens  to  be 
convenient  but  rather  because  this  soaking  is 
necessary  in  the  curing  process. 

Lumber  is  generally   piled   in   a   large   lumber 


£/.  5.  Forest  Service 

A  Pile  of  Lumber  Ready  to  Be  Placed  in  the  Dry  Kiln; 
De  Funiak,  Florida 

yard,  the  boards  being  placed  one  upon  another 
with  slats  between  them  to  allow  for  the  passage 
of  air.  A  roof  formed  from  rough  lumber  is  con- 
structed over  the  pile.  This  keeps  the  boards  from 
checking  (cracking)  by  protecting  them  from  the 
direct  rays  of  the  sun  and  from  the  soaking  rain. 


312      ELEMENTARY   INDUSTRIAL  ARTS 

The  weight  of  the  pile  prevents  the  boards  from 
warping.  In  this  way  the  lumber  may  remain 
until  it  is  properly  cured.  If  the  lumber  is  to  be 
used  for  rough  work  only,  a  short  period  of  season- 
ing is  sufficient.  For  fine  work  however,  it  is 
allowed  to  remain  undisturbed  for  five  years  or 

more.  This  method 
of  seasoning  was  the 
most  common  until 
recent  years.  Modern 
manufacturing  meth- 
ods, however,  have 
found  it  impractical 
to  allow  so  much 
time  for  seasoning. 
As  a  result  kiln  dry- 
ing has  become  popu- 
lar inasmuch  as  this 
method  of  hot  air 
seasoning  requires  but  two  weeks.  Open  air  drying 
is  still  regarded  by  most  manufacturers  to  be 
superior  to  kiln  drying  although  more  of  the  mois- 
ture is  removed  by  the  kiln  than  in  the  open  air. 


How  TO  MAKE  A  SMALL  TABLE 

This  table  is  a  low  stand  intended  to  hold  a 

potted  plant.    It  might  also  be  used  to  hold  a 

small  phonograph.    It  is  made  of  ^  inch  stock, 

with  the  exception  of  the  top  which  is  of  J/&  inch 


WOOD  AND  WOODWORKING  313 

stock.  Chestnut  is  recommended  for  the  purpose 
inasmuch  as  this  wood  is  soft  and  nicely  grained. 
There  are  no  complicated  joints  of  construction 
such  as  are  found  in  many  tables  of  this  kind. 
Each  leg  is  made  of  two  pieces  of  ^2  inch  stock 
glued  and  nailed,  and  the  rails  or  horizontal  parts 
are  fastened  to  the  inside  of  the  legs  by  screws. 
The  top  is  attached  with  four  small  angle  irons 
and  screws. 

MATERIALS 

2  pieces  of  chestnut  ^2  in.  x  8^2  in.  x  I  ft.  2^2 

in.  for  the  legs. 
I  piece  of  chestnut  ^2  in.  x  9^  in.  x  I  ft.  5  in. 

for  the  rails. 
I  piece  of  chestnut  J/i  in.  x  n^i  in.  x  n^i  in. 

for  the  top. 

20 — 1%  in.  No.  1 6  wire  brads. 
20 — ^s  in.  No.  8  flat  head  bright  wood  screws. 
8 — }4  in.  No.  8  flat  head  bright  wood  screws. 
4 — I  in.  No.  8  flat  head  bright  wood  screws. 
4 — i  in.  angle  irons. 
I  sheet  of  No.  I  sandpaper. 
Glue  and  putty. 

TOOLS 

Plane,  try-square,  rule,  knife,  gauge,  ripsaw, 
hammer,  crosscut  saw,  nail  set,  No.  6  gim- 
let bit  and  brace,  countersink,  screwdriver. 

MAKING  THE  LEGS 

(i)  The  material  for  the  legs  is  already  of  the 
correct  thickness,  ^  inch  and  also  of  the  correct 


3H     ELEMENTARY   INDUSTRIAL  ARTS 

length,  14^  inches.  One  piece  in  each  leg  is  2 
inches  wide,  and  the  other  piece  i>£  inches  wide. 
When  these  two  boards  are  joined  the  wider 
piece  will  cover  the  thickness  of  the  narrower  and, 
measuring  from  the  square  corner  of  the  leg  in 
both  directions,  the  width  will  be  2  inches.  In 
order  to  make  a  good  joint  the  edges  must  be 
exactly  straight  and  square. 

(2)  On  one  of  the  two  pieces  8y£  in.  x  I  ft.  2^2 
in.  from  which  the  legs  are  to  be  cut,  plane  an 
edge  which  will  be  square  with  one  face,  and  mark 
it  with  an  X.    This  edge  will  be  the  working  edge. 

Use  the  try-square  in  testing  for  squareness. 

(3)  From  the  working  edge  gage*  4^    inches, 
marking  all  around  the  stock.    This  width  will  be 
sufficient  to  provide  for  the  material  needed  in 
making  one  leg. 

(4)  Cut  the  board  lengthwise,   sawing  exactly 
on  the  gaged  line.   We  now  have  ready  the  stock 
for  two  of  the  legs. 

(5)  Repeat  these  operations  in   preparing   the 
second  piece  of  stock,  8^  m-  x  *  ft.  2^/2  in.    When 
this  is  done  we  shall  have  prepared  four  pieces 
4^4   in.    (minus   the   waste   from   the  saw)  x  I  ft. 
2>£  in.,  providing  one  piece  of  stock  for  each  of  the 
four  legs. 

(6)  Two  of  the  pieces  of  stock  are  already  sup- 
plied with  a  working  edge.    Provide  working  edges 

*The   gauge  is  a  tool  used   to  draw  lines  parallel  to  a   working 
edge  or  face.    If  no  gauge  is  at  hand  you  may  use  your  knife  or  pencil. 


WOOD  AND  WOODWORKING  315 

for  the  other  two  boards  by  planing  one  edge  of 
each.  (It  is  best  in  each  case  to  plane  the  straighter 
edge.)  Mark  the  working  edges  with  an  X  as 
before.  We  now  have  four  pieces  each  bearing 
properly  marked  working  edges. 

(7)  Gage   upon  each   of    these   four    pieces   of 
stock  2  inches,  the  width  of  the  wider  board  for 
each  leg.    Gage  entirely  around  as  before. 

(8)  Cut  each  of  the  four  boards  in  two,  sawing 
just  outside  the  gaged  line. 

(9)  Plane  carefully  the  rough  edge  of  each  of 
the   2    inch    (wide)    pieces   of   stock   bearing    the 
working  edge.    These  boards  are  now  finished. 

(10)  Let  us  now  plane  a  working  edge  on  each 
of   the   four   remaining   pieces,    marking   it   with 
an   X   and   gaging  i^  inches   from   the  working 
edge   and    planing  down    to  the   gage    line.    The 
narrower  boards  are  now  complete  and  ready  for 
assembling  or  putting  together. 

ASSEMBLING  THE  LEGS 

(n)  Each  leg  is  formed  by  fastening  a  piece 
of  wood  $4  in.  x  2  in.  x  I  ft.  2  ^4  in.  to  a  piece  JA  in. 
x  \%  in.  x  I  ft.  2^/2  in.  so  as  to  form  a  right  angle 
which  will  measure  2  inches  from  the  outside 
corner  to  each  opposite  edge.  To  assemble  the 
parts  of  a  leg  start  five  i%  inch  brads  into  the 
face  of  one  of  the  wider  pieces,  ^  inch  from  one 
edge  using  a  hammer.  Start  one  brad  I  inch  from 
each  end  and  space  the  others  evenly  between. 
How  far  apart  will  the  brads  have  to  be? 


316     ELEMENTARY   INDUSTRIAL  ARTS 

(12)  Place  one  of  the  narrower  pieces  of  wood 
on  edge  on  the  desk  or  in  a  vise  if  you  have  one, 
and  spread  glue  thinly  along  its  edge  where  the 
two  pieces  are  to  be  joined. 

(13)  Put  the  wider  strip  exactly  in   place  on 
the  narrower  strip  and  start  the  brads  into  the 

narrower    piece,   using    the 
hammer. 

(14)  Examine  the  work 
carefully  to  see  that  all  nails 
are  being  driven  straight. 
If  any  are  crooked  remove 
them  and  start  them  in  new 
holes,  not  in  the  original 
ones.  It  is  impossible  to 
change  the  direction  of  a 

Make  sure  that  the  parts  will      nail  af  ter  *  has  been  driven 
fit  before  you  drive  the  brads,      halfway   through   the  Stock. 

(15)  Finish  driving  the  nails. 

(16)  In  like  manner  assemble  all  the  legs. 

(17)  To  finish  the  legs,  drive  the  brads  ^  inch 
below  the  surface  with  the  hammer  and  nail  set. 
After  this  is  done  it  is  possible  to  dress  off  a  thin 
shaving  from  the  outside  surface  of  each  leg.   Hold 
the  work  in  the  vise  if  you  have  one  and  take  off  as 
little  of  the  wood  as  possible.   Plane  with  the  grain 
of  the  wood.   Fill  the  nail  holes  with  putty  or  filler, 
and  sand  the  outside  surface  and  edges  of  all  four 
legs.     This  will  give  the  work  a  smooth  appearance 
and  will  prepare  it  to  receive  the  finish. 


WOOD  AND  WOODWORKING  317 

MAKING  THE  RAILS 

(18)  The  rails  are  made  from  the  piece  of  stock 
9^  in.  x  i  ft.  5  in.,  which  is  already  of  the  correct 
length  and  thickness.    Four  strips  are  necessary, 
two  2^/2   inches  wide  and  two   \y2   inches  wide. 
These  are  later  to  be  sawed  in  two,  but  do  not 
do  this  until  directed. 

(19)  First  make  both  the  2j^  inch  pieces,  then 
the  two  1^2  inch  pieces.    Follow  the  method  used 


t         I 


The  Location  of  Screw  Holes  in  the  Wide  Rails 


•f 

f 

The  Location  of  Screw  Holes  in  the  Narrow  Rails 

for  cutting  the  leg  pieces,  but  observe  the  difference 
in  dimensions.  Use  the  try-square  in  testing  the 
edges. 

(20)  The  rails  are  to  be  of  two  lengths,  8  inches 
and  9  inches.    Measure  8  inches  from  one  end  of 
each  strip,   and  draw  a  pencil  line  through  the 
measurements  with  the  try-square  handle  against 
the  working  edge  X.  The  length  from  this  measure- 
ment to  the  other  end  of  the  strip  should  be  just 
9  inches,  the  correct  length  for  the  other  rail. 

(21)  Cut  on    the  pencil   line.     When  finished, 
you  should  have  two  wide  rails  and  two  narrow 


318     ELEMENTARY   INDUSTRIAL  ARTS 

rails  approximately  8  inches  long  and  a  similar  set 
approximately  9  inches  long. 

(22)  There  are  to  be  four  screw  holes  in  each 
wide  rail,  two  in  each  end.  Draw  pencil  lines 
across  the  piece  %  inch  from  each  end.  Measure 
on  these  lines  ^2  inch  from  the  working  edge  and  the 
same  distance  from  the  other  edge.  (See  page  318.) 

(23)  Mark     all 
four  wide  rails  in 
this  manner.  Hold 
the    pieces  in  the 
vise  and  bore   on 
these  marks   with 
the  No.  6  gimlet-bit 
or  y&  in.  drill  used 
in  a  brace. 

(24)  There    are 

Two  Legs  Held  in  Place  by  the  Long  Rails     to    be     two     Screw 

holes  in  each  nar- 
row rail,  one  in  each  end.  Draw  a  center  line  length- 
wise of  the  piece,  and  measure  %  inch  from  each 
end  and  place  a  point.  Bore  a  hole  at  each  point. 
(25)  All  these  holes  must  be  countersunk*  on 
the  back  of  each  piece.  Examine  the  rails  and 
mark  the  poorest  surface,  to  be  used  as  the  back. 
Then  countersink  the  screw  holes  with  the  counter- 
sink used  in  the  brace,  to  fit  the  heads  of  J/&  inch 

*Countersinking  consists  in  enlarging  at  its  opening  a  hole  to 
receive  the  head  of  a  flat-headed  screw  that  the  head  may  be  even  or 
flush  with  the  surface  of  the  stock. 


WOOD  AND  WOODWORKING  319 

No.  8  flat  head. screws.   Try  a  screw  in  one  of  the 
holes  to  be  sure  it  has  been  countersunk  correctly. 

ASSEMBLING  THE  LEGS  AND  RAILS 

(26)  Lay  two  of  the  legs  on  the  bench  with  the 
boards  i^  inches  wide,  underneath.    Place  two  of 
the  9  inch  rails  in  position  between  them,  a  wide 
rail  at  the  top  end  and  a  narrow  rail  2  inches 
from  the  bottom  end.    (See  page  318.) 

(27)  Use  the  J/i  inch  screws  and  start  them  in 
the  drilled  holes  with  a  hammer.  Soap  may  be  used 
to  lubricate  them.   Hold  the  ends  of  the  rails  firmly 
in  the  angles  of  the  legs  and,  with  the  screwdriver, 
drive  the  screws  in  securely.    Put  these  legs  aside. 

(28)  Join  the  other  two  legs  by  the  other  two 
long  rails,  in  exactly  the  same  way. 

(29)  Connect  the  two  pairs  of  legs  by  means 
of  the  four  remaining  rails,  the  wide  ones  at  the 
top,  the  narrow  ones  2  inches  from  the  bottom. 
In  this  work  use  a  screwdriver  with  a  short  handle, 
if  you  have  one.   Drive  the  screws  in  securely. 

MAKING  THE  TOP 

(30)  The  top  is  to  be  #j  of  an  inch  thick  and 
ilJ/2    inches    square.     Plane    the    working    edge; 
mark  the  length  n*4  inches,  and  plane  the  end. 
Mark  the  width  n^z  inches,  and  plane  the  op- 
posite edge.     Plane  the  other  end. 

(31)  Sand  the  entire  top,  rubbing  with  the  grain 
of  the  wood. 


320     ELEMENTARY   INDUSTRIAL  ARTS 


ASSEMBLING  THE  FRAME  AND  TOP 

(32)  Place  the  table  top  on  the  floor  with  the 
better  side  down.    To  locate  the  position  of  the 
frame  draw  a  square  on  the  top,  the  sides  of  which 
are  ^  inches  from  the  edges  of  the  square  top. 

(33)  Place  the  inverted  frame  in  position  on  the 
table  top  exactly  within  the  square  just  drawn 
and  put  y^.  inch  screws  through  the  angle  irons, 

first  into  the  rails  and  then  into 
If     the  table  top.    (See  illustration.) 

SANDING 

(34)  Go  over  the    surface  of 
—  the    table  with    sandpaper 
wherever  this  is  required.    Re- 
move all  sharp  edges  with  the 
Fastening  the  Top     sandpaper  held  in  the  hand,  not 
to  the  Rails          on  a  block  of  wood. 

FINISHING 

(35)  Finish  with  stain  and  wax  or  with  stain  and 
shellac  (rubbed)  finish.  If  you  prefer  you  may 
choose  a  stain  colored  to  harmonize  with  surround- 
ings in  the  room  where  the  table  is  to  be  used. 

ii 

How  TO  BUILD  BIRD  HOUSES 

There   are   three   types  of  bird  buildings:    the 

nest  shelter,  the  food  shelter,  and  the  nest  house. 

The  nest  shelter  is  open  on  one  or  more  sides  and 

its  walls  and  roof  merely  afford  protection  from 


Suggested  Designs  for  Nest  Houses  and  Food  Shelter 


322      ELEMENTARY  INDUSTRIAL  ARTS 

wind  and  rain.  The  food  shelter  is  a  roofed  struc- 
ture, open  on  the  sides,  with  a  floor  space  for 
crumbs,  seeds,  and  other  food.  The  nest  house 
is  a  small  building  in  which  the  birds  may  rear 
their  young.  The  house  may  be  constructed  with 
floors  and  partitions  to  accommodate  a  number 


Working  Drawing  of  a  Bird  House 

of  families  or  it  may  be  made  small  for  a  single 
family.   The  following  requirements  are  essential: 

(1)  Ventilation  through  holes  near  the  top  and 
above  the  entrance  opening. 

(2)  Ready  access  for  the  hand  of  the  landlord 
for  cleaning — through    the   side,    the   bottom,   or 
the  top.    The  working  drawing  shows  how  the 
bottom  may  be%inged  to  swing  downward,  thus  al- 
lowing a  thorough  cleaning  of  the  interior  to  be  made. 

(3)  Proper    protection    from    rain.     The    front 
should  face  away  from  prevailing  winds. 


WOOD  AND  WOODWORKING  323 

(4)  Entrance  openings  nearer  the  roof  than  the 
floor;  otherwise  the  bird  would  have  difficulty  in 
constructing  the  nest. 

Wood  is  the  best  material  for  bird  houses. 
Earthenware  and  metal  are  likely  to  become 
overheated  from  the  sun's  rays  unless  the  house 
is  well  protected.  Some  pupils  have  used  concrete 
successfully  in  the  construction  of  bird  houses. 

In  wooden  houses,  nails  and  screws  should  be 
set  or  countersunk  deeply  and  the  heads  of  the 
brads  or  screws  covered  with  putty. 

Paint  adds  to  the  appearance  and  durability 
of  bird  houses.  If  in  trees,  green,  brown  or  gray 
houses  will  harmonize  with  the  foliage.  Experi- 
ments have  been  made  with  dull-colored  and 
bright-colored  houses  and  it  was  found  that  the 
color  made  no  difference  to  the  birds.  Excellent 
opportunity  is,  therefore,  offered  for  decorative 
effects  in  bright  colors,  such  as  red  roofs,  white 
sides  and  green  shutters. 

Entrance  openings  vary  with  the  size  of  the 
bird  tenants.  Usually  they  are  made  too  large. 
The  following  sizes  have  been  found  satisfactory 
and  are  taken  from  Farmers'  Bulletin  609,  United 
States  Department  of  Agriculture,  on  "Bird  Houses 
and  How  to  Build  Them." 

House  finch,  crested  fly  catcher,  red-headed 

woodpecker, — 2  inches. 

Blue  bird,  tree  swallow,  hairy  woodpecker, — 

12  inches. 


324     ELEMENTARY   INDUSTRIAL  ARTS 

Tufted    titmouse,    white-breasted    nuthatch, 

downy  woodpecker, — 1^4  inches. 

Chickadee,   Carolina  wren, — iy&  inches. 

House  wren, — J/&  of  an  inch. 

Robin,   barn  swallow,   phoebe — one  or  more 

sides  open. 

Wood  for  constructing  houses  should  not  be 
too  thin.  One-fourth  inch  stock  is  likely  to  warp. 
Three-eighths  of  an  inch  thick  or  even  thicker 
should  be  used.  When  the  houses  have  pointed 
roofs,  a  strip  of  thin  brass,  copper,  or  painted 
sheet  iron  should  be  nailed  on  the  top,  or  ridge 
to  cover  the  joint  so  that  water  cannot  work  its 
way  through. 

Before  making  the  entrance  hole,  the  kinds  of 
birds  which  frequent  the  premises  should  be  de- 
termined. Then  their  haunts  and  social  habits 
should  be  discovered.  A  careful  record  of  these 
things  should  be  kept  in  a  nature  study  note- 
book. Finally  the  house  or  houses  should  be  sta- 
tioned in  places  suggested  in  your  notebook.  A 
close  watch  should  be  kept  and  such  events  as  the 
first  bird  to  perch  on  the  house,  the  first  entrance, 
the  kinds  of  material  carried  in,  etc.,  should  be 
carefully  recorded  in  the  nature  study  notebook. 

Some  of  the  sketches  in  the  illustrations  are 
of  houses  actually  made  by  pupils  in  school.  The 
large  cylindric  house  was  made  from  a  small  nail 
keg  with  the  addition  of  an  inverted  wooden 
chopping  bowl.  A  floor  was  placed  halfway  between 


WOOD  AND  WOODWORKING  325 

the  top  and  bottom  of  this  house  to  allow  space 
for  two  families. 


STRADIVARIUS 

"Antonio  Stradivari  has  an  eye 

That  winces  at  false  work  and  loves  the  true, 

With  hand  and  arm  that  play  upon  the  tool 

As  willingly  as  any  singing  bird 

Sets  him  to  sing  his  morning  roundelay, 

Because  he  likes  to  sing  and  likes  the  song. 

"And  for  my  fame — when  any  master  holds 

'Twixt  chin  and  hand  a  violin  of  mine, 

He  will  be  glad  that  Stradivari  lived, 

Made  violins,  and  made  them  of  the  best. 

The  masters  only  know  whose  work  is  good : 

They  will  choose  mine,  and  while  God  gives  them  skill 

I  give  them  instruments  to  play  upon, 

God  choosing  me  to  help  Him. 

"I  say,  not  God  Himself  can  make  man's  best 
Without  best  men  to  help  Him.   I  am  one  best 
Here  in  Cremona,  using  sunlight  well 
To  fashion  finest  maple  till  it  serves 
More  cunningly  than  throats  for  harmony. 
'Tis  rare  delight :  I  would  not  change  my  skill 
To  be  the  Emperor. 

"  'Tis  God  gives  skill 

But  not  without  men's  hands:  He  could  not  make 
Antonio  Stradivari's  violins 
Without  Antonio."  GEORGE  ELIOT 


326      ELEMENTARY  INDUSTRIAL  ARTS 
EXERCISES  FOR  STUDY  AND  REVIEW 

(1)  Draw  a  simple  map  of  a  lumber  camp  indicating 
the  timber,  buildings,  roads,  and  skidways. 

(2)  How  are  trees  cut  down? 

(3)  What  do  the  swampers  do? 

(4)  Why  is  the  life  of  a  lumberjack  hazardous? 

(5)  What  is  meant  by  a  jam?    How  are  jams  some- 
times broken? 

(6)  Why  are  logs  allowed  to  lie  in  the  water  until  they 
are  about  to  be  cut  into  lumber? 

(7)  What  are  some  of  the  most  important  processes  in 
sawmilling? 

(8)  Explain  the  picture,  "Slooping  Logs  Down  the  Moun- 
tain" by  Charles  S.  Chapman. 

(9)  Locate   some  of   the   important   lumber  producing 
areas  of  the  United  States. 

(10)  Make  a  freehand  working  sketch  of  a  window  box 
for  flowers. 

(n)  If  you  were  to  become  a  woodworker,  which  line 
of  the  work  would  you  prefer  to  follow?    Why? 


SUGGESTED  READING  ABOUT  WOODWORKING 

Bishop   and    Keller. — Industry   and    Trade    (Index   under 

Sawmills).   Ginn  &  Co. 
Blackburn. — Problems  in  Farm   Woodwork.    Manual  Arts 

Press. 
Bush  and  Bush. — Industrial  and  Applied  Art  Books,  V, 

VI,  VII,  VIII.   Atkinson,  Mentzer,  &  Company. 
Carpenter. — -Geographical  Reader,   Book   One    (Pages    198 

to  205,  Lumber).    American  Book  Company. 
Chamberlain. — How  We  Are  Sheltered  (Page  89,  Lumbering). 

The  Macmillan  Company. 


WOOD  AND  WOODWORKING  327 

McMurry. — Type  Studies  from    United   States   Geography 

(Pages    108   and    132,   Lumbering).     The   Macmillan 

Company. 
Moseley. — Trees,  Stars,  and  Birds  (Index  under  Furniture, 

Oak,  Pine,  Whitewood).    World  Book  Company. 
Noyes. — Handwork  in  Wood.    Manual  Arts  Press. 

-  Wood  and  Forest.    Manual  Arts  Press. 
Park. — Educational  Woodworking  for  School  and  Home.  The 

Macmillan  Company. 
Rodgers   and   Others. — Trade    Foundations   (Index   under 

Carpenter,     Cabinetmaker,     Wood).      G.     M.     Jones, 

Indianapolis. 
Snow  and  Froehlich. — Industrial  Art  Text  Books,  V,  VI, 

VII,  VIII.    The  Prang  Company. 
Tarr    and    McMurry. — New    Geographies,    Second    Book 

(Index  under  Forest  Products,  Mahogany).    The  Mac- 
millan Company. 

Toothaker. — Commercial  Raw  Materials.     Ginn  &  Co. 
Wells. — How  the  Present  Came  from  the  Past,  Book  Two 

(Index    under    Carpenters,    Cabinetmakers,    Furniture, 

Guitars).    The  Macmillan  Company. 


INDEX 


Acid,  61,  218. 

Adobe,  89,  104. 

Aggregate,  144,  149-152- 

Agitators,  57. 

Aldrich,  Thomas  Bailey,  4. 

Alkali,  61. 

Alloys,  212,  223. 

Alphabet,  36. 

Alum,  57. 

Alumina,  1 12. 

America,  53,  89,  90. 

American  Indians,   194,   195,  214 

265,  267. 
Annealing,  of  copper,  220;  glass, 

273;  lehr,  275. 
Anode,  217. 
Antimony,  13. 
Anvil,  242. 
Arabs,  2,  52. 
Arizona,  154,  215. 
Arkwright,  Richard,  191. 
Arsenic,  218. 
Art,  Christian,  4. 
Asbestos,  54. 
Ashes,  253. 
Aspdin,  Joseph,  144. 
Assembly,  a  book,  12;  matrices,  22. 
Assyrians,  I,  51. 
Asia,  52,  88. 
Austria,  267. 
Aztecs,  89. 

Babylon,  89. 

Babylonians,  I,  2. 

Backing,  in  bookbinding,  10. 

Ball  clay,  105. 

Basket,  the  making  of  a  woven, 

71-74;    over    a    form,    74-78; 

sewed,  78-79. 
Baskets,  the  manufacture  of,  69- 

87;     woven,     70;     willow,     70; 

rattan,  70. 

Basket  Weaver,  The,  a  poem,  85. 
Basswood,  70. 
Bat,  clay,  115. 
Batting  out,  115. 


Bead  making,  282. 

Beads,  265,  282;  uses  of,  283, 
work  with,  285-294. 

Bead  weaving,  varieties  of,  283, 
284. 

Beaters,  57. 

Beech,  253. 

Belgium,  267,  282. 

Belleek,  106. 

Bell  metal,  224. 

Beneker,  Gerrit  A.,  101. 

Bessemer  converter,  216,  235,  237. 

Bindings  for  books,  see  cloth, 
damask,  leather,  paper,  satin, 
velvet. 

Bird  houses,  how  to  build,  321- 
326. 

Biscuit,  ill. 

Bismaya,  88. 

Bisque,  in;  ware,  118. 

Black  Hawk,  statute  of,  158-162. 

Blacksmith,  242,  299. 

Blast  furnace,  216,  233. 

Blazing,  297. 

Bleaching,  54,  56. 

Block  printing,  13,  14. 

Blowing  holes,  271. 

Blown  glass,  282. 

Blue  print,  54. 

Blue  stone,  218. 

Boiler,  57. 

Bone,  51;  china,  106. 

Book  binders,  5;  printers  as,  5; 
stationers  as  5. 

Bookbinding,  2;  monastic,  4. 

Book,  how  to  make  a,  of  one  sig- 
nature, 32-37;  of  several  signa- 
tures, 37-43:  Japanese. 

Booklet,  how  to  make  a,  25-27. 

Bookmakers,  4. 

Bookmaking,  1-49. 

Books,  2,  4;  early  manuscript,  4; 
early  covers  for,  4-6;  printing 
of,  6-25. 

Bottles,  282. 

Bowl,  how  to  cast  a,  133-137. 


329 


330 


INDEX 


Bowls,  114;  making  of,  115. 

Box,  the  making  of  a  padded, 
79-85. 

Boxes,  the  manufacture  of,  69-78; 
wooden,  69;  paper,  70. 

Braley,  Berton,  230. 

Brass,  51,  223. 

Brick,  88;  varieties  of,  90;  wire- 
cut,  95;  fire,  146. 

Brick  and  tile,  88-103. 

Bricks,  as  records,  I ;  how  to  make, 
98-101. 

Bronze,  223. 

Builder,  The,  a  poem,  101. 

Bullock,  William,  16. 

Bungs,  117. 

Cairns,  50. 

Calcium,  112. 

Calenders,  60. 

Cameo,  13. 

Cane  sugar,  53. 

Cant  hook,  305. 

Cardboard,  54. 

Carding,  182,  189,  190. 

Cartons,  69. 

Cases,    for    clay    tablets,    2;    for 

manuscripts,  2;  for  wax  tablets, 

2;  for  books,  12. 
Caster  of  pottery,  116. 
Castile  soap,  259. 
Castor  oil,  254. 
Cathode,  217. 
Caxton,  William,  5,  14. 
Cement  and  concrete,  143-181. 
Cement    tile,    the   making  of    a, 

171-178. 
Chair  seats,  71. 
Chaldea,  51,  89 
Chalk,  52. 
Chase,  18. 
Checking,  307. 
Chili,  214. 

China,  106;  bone,  106. 
Chinese,  i,  13,  52,  143,  194. 
Clamps,  96. 
Clasps  for  books,  4. 
Clay,    i,    51,    104;    washing,    90; 

ball,    105;    in     glazes,    112;  in 

model    making,   114;    bat,   115; 

fire,  117;   in  cement,  114. 
Clerk,  299. 
Clinker,  147. 


Cloth,  for  bookbinding,  6;  wire, 
58;  primitive  method  of  clean- 
ing, 253. 

Coal,  bituminous,  97. 

Cobalt,  112,  269. 

Cocoanut  oil,  254,  259. 

Coke,  96,  233. 

Color,  ceramic,  123. 

Composing,  17,  18. 

Composing  stick,  18. 

Compositor,  17. 

Concrete,  57;  structures,  143;  con- 
stituents of,  144;  molding  of, 
152;  reinforced,  153-155;  mix- 
ing of  155-157;  mixer,  157;  stan- 
dard mixtures,  157;  box,  making 
of,  162-171. 

Concrete  box,  the  making  of  a, 
162-171. 

Connecticut,  212. 

Conservation,  of  paper,  56. 

Containers,  corrugated,  70. 

Cook,  299. 

Cope,  239. 

Copper,  212-231. 

Copper,  8,  112;  heap  roasting  of, 
215;  blister,  216;  electrolytic 
refining  of,  217;  annealing,  220; 
rolling,  220;  commercial  forms 
of,  220;  industrial  uses  of,  220- 
224;  dish,  making  of,  224-228; 
in  colors,  224;  269. 

Copper  dish,  how  to  make,  224-228. 

Copper  refining,  215-219. 

Copy,  17. 

Cotton,  53. 

Covenants,  50. 

Covers  for  books,  see  damask, 
leather,  metal,  satin,  velvet, 
4-6;  making  of,  12. 

Crates,  berry,  70. 

Crompton,  Samuel,  193. 

Cross  cut  saw,  300. 

Crucible,  269,  277. 

Crusher,  jaw,  144;  ore,  232. 

Crutcher,  258. 

Cups,  making  of,  115. 

Curing,  312. 

Cut  glass,  280. 

Damask  for  book  covers,  6. 
Dandy  roll,  59. 
Decalcomania,  121. 


INDEX 


Decals,  lithographed,  122. 
Decorating  pottery,  112,  119. 
Decorations,  carved,  2. 
DeGarmo,  Charles,  158. 
Designs,    for    book    covers    and 

clasps,  4;  for  pottery  decoration, 

120-123. 

Diamonds,  in  bookmaking,  5. 
Die,  243. 
Digester,  6l. 
Dinner  ware,  120. 
Dishes,  105;  making  of,  115. 
Distaff,  184. 
Drag,  239. 
Drainers,  57. 
Drawing,  115. 
Drawing  rolls,  190. 
Dray  roads,  299. 
Drive,  307. 
Drop  forge,  243. 
Drying,  bricks,  90;  floor,  93. 
Drypan,  91. 
Dynamo,  217. 

Earthenware,  107. 

Edge  rollers,  91,  92. 

Egypt,  50,  51,  52,  89. 

Egyptians,  108,  194. 

Electrotyping,  24. 

Eliot,  George,  326. 

Emerald  green,  224. 

Engines,  beating,  56. 

England,  53,  144,  190,  194,  282. 

Engraving,  13. 

Ethelsold,  4. 

Euphrates,  88. 

Europe,  2,  52,  88,  89,  282. 

Faience,  107. 

Fats,  254. 

Feldspar,  107. 

Felt,  58. 

Ferguson,  Samuel,  250. 

Firing,  bricks,  90;  pottery,  I2O. 

Fish  oil,  254. 

Fitter,  300. 

Flask,  239. 

Flats,  71. 

Flax,  53. 

Flux,  233. 

Flyer,  190. 

Folio,  12. 

Forests,  56. 


Forging,  242;  drop,  243. 

Forging  of  the  Anchor,  The,  a  poem, 

249,  250. 
Forms,  in  printing,  18;  plaster  of 

Paris,  1 16;  concrete,  152-153. 
France,  254,  267. 
Franklin,  Benjamin,  67. 
Friar  Jerome's  Beautiful  Book,  4. 
Frit,  113,  114,  269. 
Fuller's  earth,  253. 
Furnace,  open  hearth,  236;  glass, 

272,  277. 

Gage,  of  copper,  220. 

Galley,  18. 

Galley  proof,  18. 

Gas,  natural,  267. 

Gathering,  271. 

Gauls,  253. 

Germany,  53,  212,  254,  267. 

Glass,  112;  early,  265;  modern 
manufacture,  267-279;  constit- 
uents of,  267;  lime,  267;  lead, 
267;  window,  269;  plate,  276; 
cutting,  280,  281;  staining,  281; 
etching,  281;  varieties  of  pro- 
ducts, 282;  Tiffany,  282. 

Glass  bead  work,  how  to  do,  285- 
294. 

Glass  industry,  the,  265-296. 

Glaze,  212;  mix,  112. 

Glycerine,  256. 

Gold,  51,  217,  218. 

Gospels,  4. 

Grass,  53. 

Great  wheel,  185. 

Greece,  4. 

Greek  vases,  108,  109. 

Grinding,  logs,  55;  shale,  92. 

Grinding  rubbers,  279. 

Grog,  97. 

Gutenberg,  John,  13,  21. 

Halftone,  8. 

Hammer,  242;  trip,  243. 

Handles  for  dishes,  116. 

Hargreaves,  John,  190. 

Harness  frame,  194. 

Hemp,  53. 

Henry  III  of  France,  5. 

Hindus,  194. 

Hoe,  R.  &  Co., 17. 

Hog,  311. 


332 


INDEX 


Holland,  53,  282. 
Horses,  304,  305. 
Horse  shoes,  242. 
Hotel  ware,  120. 

House,  how  to  build  a  toy  brick, 
98-101. 

Illinois,  88,  158,  267. 

Illuminating,  4. 

Illustrations,  8,  13. 

Impression,  positive,  24. 

Incas,  89. 

Indian  Blanket,  The,  a  poem,  208, 
209. 

Indians,  American,  194,  195,  214, 
265,  267. 

Ink,  62. 

Inscriptions,  on  clay,  metal,  and 
wax,  I ;  illuminated,  4. 

Intaglio,  13. 

Ireland,  4,  106. 

Iron,  104,  ii2,  269;  sheet,  223; 
ore,  232;  mining,  232;  extract- 
ing from  ore,  232-235;  convert- 
ing into  steel,  236,  241 ;  rolling, 
237;  founding,  237;  wrought, 
240;  bars,  242;  forging,  242. 

Iron  and  steel,  232-252. 

Italy,  254. 

Ivory,  51. 

Sack  ladder,  308. 
am,  log,  306. 
apan,  212. 
apanese,  2. 
apanese  book.how  to  make  a,  27- 

32. 
Jardiniere,  how  to   make  a,  137, 

138- 

enny,  spinning,  191. 
erusalem,  4. 
esuit,  214. 

igger,  115;  man,  116. 
iggering,  oval,  116. 
ute,  53. 

Kaolin,  104,  105. 

Kerf,  300. 

Kiln,   brick,  96-98;  pottery,   no, 

III;    ghost,   112;    placer,    118; 

rotary  cement,   145;  stationary 

cement,  149;  glass,  275. 
Kiln  drying,  313. 


Lake  Superior,  214,  232. 

Land-looking,  297. 

Lard,  254 

Lathe,  108,  114. 

Lead,  13,  51,  107,  112,  223,  267. 

Leather,   for  book  covers,   4,   6; 

tooled,  5. 
Leblanc,  254. 
Lehr,  275. 
Library,  52. 
Lime,  52,  57,  267,  277. 
Limestone,  144,  233. 
Line  cut,  IO. 
Linen,  53. 
Linotype,  18-23. 
Lithographing,  122. 
Logs,  55;  basswood,  70;  decking 

of,  303;  slooping,  303;  key,  306. 
Log  stopper,  308. 
Longfellow,    Henry    Wadsworth, 

141. 

Loom,  193-197. 

Loom,  how  to  make  a,  198-205. 
Lumber  camp,  297. 
Lumbering,  297-308. 
Lumber  jack,  299,  305. 
Lumber  trimmer,  310. 
Lumber  yard,  312. 
Lye,  256,  258. 

Machine,  paper,  55;  cutting,  56; 

ruling,  62;  brick  making,  95. 
Magazines,  24,  51. 
Maine,  90. 
Majolica,  107. 
Mallock,  Douglas,  86 . 
Mandrel,  116. 
Manuscripts,  earliest,  2;  printing 

of,  6. 

Massachusetts,  90,  212. 
Mat,  iron,  242. 
Matrices,  20. 
Matrix,  144. 
Maul,  300. 
Mercury,  218. 
Mergenthaler,  Ottmar,  20. 
Metal,  as  writing  material,  i;  for 

book  covers,  4;  type,    13,  23; 

salts  of,  269;  in  glass  making, 

269. 

Michigan,  214. 
Mill,  paper,  53,  55,  56;  wash,  90: 

pan,  91;  pug,  93,  114;  ball,  145, 


INDEX 


333 


269;  rolling,  236;  steel,  243, 
saw,  308-311;  pond,  311. 

Mine,  Anaconda  copper,  216. 

Mirrors,  262. 

Missouri,  267. 

Mixer,  concrete,  157. 

Mixtures,  standard  concrete,  157. 

Modeler,  114,  115. 

Modeling,  112. 

Mold,  how  to  make  a  plaster,  130- 
133;  block,  114;  case,  114;  work- 
ing, 115. 

Molding,  bricks,  90,  93,  95;  glass, 
265. 

Mold  maker,  114. 

Moldmaking,  112. 

Molds,  plaster  of  Paris,  109;  ingot, 
236, 238. 

Monasteries,  4. 

Monastic  Scribe,  The,  a  poem,  47. 

Montana,  215,  216. 

Monuments,  89. 

Moors,  52. 

Mt.  Vesuvius,  254. 

Mulberry,  52. 

Mule  spinning  frame,  193. 

My  Work,  a  poem,  294. 

Nails,  242. 
Nebuchadnezzar,  89. 
Neihardt,  John  G.,  179. 
New  Jersey,  88,  214,  267. 
Newspaper,  25,  51. 
Newsprint,  61. 
New  York,  88,  90. 
North  Carolina,  90. 

Obelisks,  50. 

Octavo,  12. 

Ohio,  88,  267. 

Oils,  254. 

Olive  oil,  254,  259. 

Ontanagon  River,  214. 

Open  hearth,  236. 

Palm  oil,  254,  259. 

Paper,  6,  54,  56;  making,  50-68; 

how  to  make,  62 ;  paraffined,  69 ; 

grass  bleached,  65. 
Paper,  a  poem,  66. 
Paper-mache,  24,  54. 
Paper  making,  50-68. 


Paper  weight,  how  to  cast  a,  243- 

249. 

Papyrus,  2,  51. 
Parchment,  2,  52. 
Paris,  plaster  of,   109;  in  model 

making,  114. 
Pattern,  237. 
Paul,  Lewis,  190. 
Peavey,  305. 

Pennsylvania,  53,  88,  90,  267. 
Pharaohs,  89. 
Philippine  Islands,  70. 
Pig  iron,  235. 
Pike  pole,  305. 
Piston,  95,  308. 
Pitchers,  114. 
Plain  weave,  195. 
Plane,  93. 
Plate,   of  copper,   8;   of  zinc,   8; 

stereotype,  23;   electrotype,  23, 

24;  dinner,  115. 
Plate  glass,  making  of  276-280, 

282. 

Pliny,  253. 
Pompeii,  253. 
Porcelain,  105;  semi-,  107. 
Portfolio,  how  to  make  a,  43-46. 
Portland  cement,  modern  method 

of  making,  144-149;  old  method, 

149. 

Posters,  how  to  make,  46,  47. 
Potteries,  108. 

Potter's  Song,  a  poem,  138-141. 
Potter's  wheel,  108. 
Pottery,     classification    of,     105; 

building  by  hand,  108;  casting 

of,  109. 

Pottery  industry,  the,  104-142. 
Press,   printing,   14-17;  rolls,  59; 

filter,  113. 
Pressed  glass,  282. 
Pressing,  filter,  113;  of  handles  for 

cups,  1 1 6. 

Printers,  as  binders,  5. 
Printer's  reader,  6. 
Printing,  2;  color,  8;  invention  of, 

12;  with  wooden  blocks,  13;  of 

magazines,  24;  of  newspapers, 

?5-. 

Printing  press,  14—17. 
Proof,  galley  and  page,  18. 
Psalters,  4. 
Puddling  furnace,  241. 


334  INDEX 


Pugging,  90,  93,  113. 
Pulp,  53-58;  wood,  70. 
Pumice  stone,  52. 

Quarto,  12. 

Rags,  55-57,  61,  70. 

Rattan,  70. 

Reed  winding,  71. 

Rhode  Island,  90. 

Ribbons,  rattan,  71. 

Roman  Empire,  51. 

Romans,  I,  143. 

Rome,  4. 

Roosevelt  Dam,  154. 

Rosin,  57. 

Rounding,  10. 

Round  reed,  71. 

Rug,  how  to  weave  a,  205-208. 

Sabin,  Edwin  L.,  209. 

Sagger,  no;  making  a,  1 12,  114, 

117. 

St.  Boniface,  4. 
Salt,  219,  254. 
Samaria,  89. 
Samarkand,  52. 
Satin  for  book  covers,  6. 
Satin  weave,  195. 
Saw,   crosscut,   300;   edger,   310; 

swing  cut-off,  310;  slasher,  310. 
Saw  carriage,  308. 
Saw  mill,  308-311. 
Sawyers,  300. 
Sealers,  304. 
Screen,  58. 
Scribes,  4. 
Scrolls,  2. 
Seal,  13. 
Seasoning,  313. 
Semiporcelain,  107. 
Setting  of  concrete,  152. 
Sewing  in  bookbinding,  10. 
Shale,  91;  in  concrete,  145. 
Shed,  193. 

Shepard,  Flora  Mae,  263. 
Shingles,  310. 
Shuttle,  187,  195. 
Shuttle,  How  to  make  a,  205. 
Signature,  7. 
Silica,  112,  267. 
Silk,  53- 


Silver,  217,  218. 

Skein,  187. 

Skidways,  299. 

Skins,  51,  52. 

Slag,  242. 

Slip,  91,  109;  making,  113. 

Sloop,  303. 

Smashing,  10. 

Soap,  industry,  the,  253-264;  mak- 
ing, early  method,  253-255;  con- 
stituents of, 254;  making,modern 
method,  255-260;  varieties  of, 
259,  260;  how  to  make,  260-262. 

Soap  Song,  a  poem,  262,  263. 

Sand,  104;  test  for  purity  for  con- 
crete, 151;  molding,  239;  part- 
ing, 239;  glass,  267,  277. 

Soda  ash,  267,  277. 

Soda,  caustic,  57,  254. 

Spain,  52,  212,  254. 

Spaniards,  52,  89. 

Spindle,  184. 

Spinning,  184-187;  190-193. 

Spinning  jenny,  191. 

Splints,  basket,  70. 

Sponges,  1 1 6. 

Sprue  pin,  240. 

Squeezer,  242. 

Stained  glass,  281. 

Steel,  116;  balls,  145,  236. 

Stencil,  54. 

Stone,  pumice,  52. 

Stoneware,  105. 

Stradivarius ,  a  poem,  326. 

Straw,  53,  70. 

Strike,  93. 

Swampers,  301. 

Table,  how  to  make  a  small,  313- 

321. 
Tablets,  of  wax,  2;  of  clay,  51;  of 

bone,  51;  of  paper,  61. 
Taft,  Lorado,  158. 
Tallow,  254,  259. 
Tap  hole,  216. 
Tassels,  how  to  make,  208. 
Tempering,  90,  92. 
Templet,  115. 
Tennessee,  214. 

Textile  industries,  the,  182-211. 
Thinker,  The,  a  poem,  228-229. 
Thrasher,  56. 
Tiffany  glass,  282. 


INDEX 


335 


Tile,  88;  varieties  of,  90;  roofing, 

Tin,  23,  107,  223. 

Tissue,  54. 

Tote  road,  299. 

Traditions,  50. 

Trees,  56;  felling  of,  300. 

Tube,  glass  blower's,  269. 

Turbine    Wheel,    Song   of  the,    a 

poem,  178,  179. 
Twill  weave,  195. 
Type,  13;  casting,  13;  movable,  14. 
Typesetting,  17,  18. 

United  States,  88,  90,   194,  212, 
214,  265, 267,  282. 

Van  Dyke,  Henry,  294. 
Vase.howto  makea,i23-i3o;Port- 

land,  281. 

Vases,  Greek,  108,  109. 
Velvet  for  book  covers,  6. 
Verdigris,  224. 
Vermont,  214. 
Virginia,  90,  265. 
Vitreous  ware,  107. 


Warp,  193. 

Water,  for  concrete,  152. 

Water  frame,  191. 

Watermark,  59. 

Wax,    as    writing    material,    51; 

tablets,  2;  paper,  54. 
Weaves,  types  of,  195. 
Weaving,  193-197. 
Wedge,  300. 
Weft,  191,  193. 
West  Virginia,  267. 
Whipper,  56. 
Whirler,  114. 
Willow,  70. 

Window  glass,  269,  273. 
Wood,  52,  53;  beech,  253;  products 

297. 
Wood    and    woodworking,    297- 

328. 

Wood  blocks,  for  printing,  25. 
Wyatt,  John,  190. 

Yarn,  186. 

Zinc,  8,  112,  223. 
Zinc  etching,  8. 


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